Chinese ingredients

Black bean paste

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Black bean paste, commonly called ''dòu shā'' or ''hěi dóu shā'' , is a sweet bean paste often used as a filling in cakes such as mooncakes or ''doushabao'' in many and cuisines.

Black bean paste is made from pulverized mung beans, combined with ''zao fan'' crystal .

Black bean paste is similar to the more well-known red bean paste. The recorded history of black bean paste goes as far back as the Ming Dynasty.

Five Chinese cereals

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The Five Chinese cereals are a group of five grains important in ancient China and regarded as sacred. They are first listed in Fah Shên-chih's text on farming circa 2800 BCE entitled ''Fah Shên-chih Shu''.

There are various versions of which five crops are represented in the list. One version includes soybeans, rice, wheat, proso millet, and foxtail millet. Another version, given in the Classic of Rites, excludes rice and includes hemp. All but soybeans are cereal grains.

The ancient Chinese gave them their own god, Houji .

Facing heaven pepper

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The facing heaven pepper is a cone-shaped, medium-hot chili pepper with very thin skin, between 3 and 6 centimeters in length, and 1 to 2 centimeters in diameter at the base. Originally from the Sichuan province in Southwest China, it owes its name to the fact that it grows upside down. Facing heaven is the second most widely used chili in Chinese cuisine . Because of its attractive appearance, the dried chili is often added to dishes whole . When lightly fried in oil it turns radiant red and loses enough of its heat to allow for it to be eaten whole. In China smaller chilies generally cost more than larger ones, because of their better color and more regular shape. Because of import restrictions
,
Facing Heaven chilies are difficult to find in the United States, but they are available in Chinese and specialty stores in Europe.

Euryale ferox

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Euryale ferox is the only species in the genus Euryale. It is a flowering plant classified in the water lily family, Nymphaeaceae, although it is occasionally regarded as a distinct family Euryalaceae. Unlike other water lilies, the pollen grains of ''Euryale'' have three .

''Euryale'' is an annual plant native to eastern Asia, and is found from India to Korea and Japan, as well as parts of eastern Russia. It grows in water, producing bright purple flowers. The are large and round, often more than a meter across, with a a leaf stalk attached in the center of the lower surface. The underside of the leaf is purplish, while the upper surface is green. The leaves have a quilted texture, although the stems, flowers, and leaves which float on the surface are covered in sharp prickles. Other leaves are submerged.

Use

The plant produces starchy white seeds, and the seeds are edible. The plant is cultivated for its seeds More than 96,000 hectares of Bihar, India, were set aside for cultivation of ''Euryale'' in 1990-1991. The plant does best in locations with hot, dry summers and cold winters. Seeds are collected in the late summer and early autumn, and may be eaten raw or cooked. In , the plant is called ''qiàn shí'' . Its edible seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicine, where they are often cooked in soups along with other ingredients, and believed to strengthen male potency and retard aging. In India, particularly in the northern and western parts of the country, ''Euryale ferox'' seeds are often roasted or fried, which causes them to pop like popcorn. These are then eaten, often with a sprinkling of oil and spices.

The name ''Euryale'' comes from the mythical Greek Gorgon by the same name. The Soviet Union issued a postage stamp featuring this species.

Edamame

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is a preparation of baby soybeans in the pod commonly found in China and Japan. The pods are boiled in water together with condiments such as salt, and served whole.

Outside East Asia, the dish is most often found in Japanese restaurants and some Chinese restaurants, but has also found popularity elsewhere as a healthy food item.

Name

The Japanese name ''edamame'' is commonly used in some -speaking countries to refer to the dish. The Japanese name literally means "twig bean", and is a reference to the short stem attached to the pod. This term originally referred to young soybeans in general. Over time, however, the prevalence of the salt-boiled preparation meant that the term ''edamame'' now often refers specifically to this dish.

In , young soybeans are known as ''maodou'' . Young soybeans in the pod are known as ''maodoujia'' . Because boiling in the pod is the usual preparation for young soybeans, the dish is usually identified via a descriptive name, such as "boiled ''maodou''", or "salt-boiled ''maodou''", depending on the condiments added, but like in Japan, simply saying the name of the bean, maodou, in a Chinese restaurant will produce salt-flavored, boiled maodou.

Preparation

Green soybeans in the pod are picked before they ripen. The ends of the pod may be cut before boiling or steaming.

The pods are then boiled in water or steamed. The most common preparation uses salt for taste. The salt may either be dissolved in the boiling water before introducing the soybean pods, or it may be added after the pods have been cooked.

Other condiments can also be used. ''Jiuzao'' , made from the highly fermented grain residue left over from the distilling of rice wine, can be used to add fragrance and flavor. Some recipes also call for Sichuan pepper for taste. Five-spice powder can also be used for flavoring.

Boiled soybean pods are usually served after cooling, but can also be served hot.

The beans are consumed by using one's teeth to squeeze them out of the pod. The pod itself is discarded.

The United States Department of Agriculture states that edamame are "a soybean that can be eaten fresh and is best known as a snack with a nutritional punch".

Health

Fiber-rich carbohydrates such as edamame help prevent mood fluctuations by keeping blood-sugar levels steady. Edamame also contains protein, which further helps stabilize blood sugar, and omega-3 fatty acids, which have been shown to combat depression .

Edamame beans contain higher levels of abscissic acid, sucrose, protein than other types of soybean. They also contain a high source of vitamin A, vitamin B and calcium.

Dried shrimp

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Dried shrimp are shrimp that have been sun dried and shrunk to a thumbnail size. They are used primarily in Chinese cuisine, imparting a unique umami taste. A handful of shrimp are generally used for dishes. When cooked, the flavor is released as an ingredient. Despite the literal meaning of the name "shrimp rice", it has nothing to do with rice other than the fact that the shrimp are shrunk to a tiny size similar to grains of rice.

Use

In East Asia

In Chinese cuisine, dried shrimp are used quite frequently for their sweet and unique flavor that is very different from fresh shrimp. They have the coveted umami flavor . It is an ingredient in the Cantonese XO sauce. Dried shrimp are also used in Chinese soups and braised dishes. It is also featured in Cantonese cuisine, particularly in some dim sum dishes such as rolled and rice noodle roll and in ''zongzi''.

Dried shrimp are also used in Korean cuisine, where they are soaked briefly to reconstitute them, and are then stir-fried with seasonings--typically garlic, ginger, scallions, , sugar, and hot peppers--and served as a side dish. It is called ''"mareunsaeu bokkeum"'' in . They are also used in some Korean braised dishes and used for making broth.

In Southeast Asia

In countries like Malaysia, shrimps are used to make a condiment called ''sambal udang'' . In Southeast Asia, prawns and shrimps are distinguished by their size and therefore it is not practical to make ''sambal udang'' with prawns. The Malay people developed ''sambal udang'', which uses fresh shrimp and is wetter, while the Chinese living in Southeast Asia, especially those of Peranakan descent, developed ''sambal udang kering'', which uses dried shrimp, is drier, and can be served as pub grub. Most major supermarkets in Malaysia and Singapore sell fresh shrimp from which the shells have already been removed.

Known as ???????? in Thai cuisine, dried shrimp is used extensively with chilies and Thai herbs to produce chili paste and various types of curry paste. Dried shrimp is also used as is in Northeastern dishes such as somtam.

Dried shrimp paste, called ''kapi'' , is also eaten in Thailand.

They are also used in Vietnamese cuisine, where they are called ''t?m kh?'', and are used in soups and in fried rice.

Douchi

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Douchi , also called Chinese fermented black beans, is a flavoring most popular in the cuisine of China, and is used to make black bean sauce.

''Douchi'' is made by and salting soybeans. The process turns the beans black, soft, and mostly dry. The flavor is sharp, pungent, and spicy in smell, with a taste that is salty and somewhat bitter and sweet.

''Douchi'' should not be confused with , a variety of common bean that is commonly used in the cuisines of Central America, South America, and the Caribbean.

In , ''douchi'' is also referred to by the same kanji and pronounced as ''touchi''.

The process and product are similar to ''ogiri'' and ''iru'', both being African fermented bean products.

Use

Douchi is especially used to flavor fish or vegetables . Unlike some other fermented soybean-based foods such as natto or tempeh, ''douchi'' is used only as a seasoning, and is not meant to be consumed in large quantities, being typically much more salty.

Small packets of ''douchi'' are available wherever Chinese foods are sold.

Some common dishes made with ''douchi'' are Steamed Spare ribs with Fermented Black Beans and Chili Pepper , and Braised Mud Carp with Fermented Black Beans .

Black bean paste

In Chinese cuisine, a condiment called black bean paste or black bean garlic sauce is made from ''douchi'', as well as garlic and soy sauce, a typical combination used for seasoning a dish. This paste is commercially available in glass jars from companies such as Lee Kum Kee, although most Chinese restaurant chefs prefer to use actual ''douchi'' to prepare such sauces rather than using commercially available black bean paste.

Dog meat

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In some countries, apart from being kept as pets, certain breeds of dogs are raised on farms and slaughtered for their meat. Dog meat may be consumed as an alternative source of meat or for specific medicinal benefits attributed to various parts of a dog. In parts of the world where dogs are kept as pets, people generally consider the use of dogs for food to be a .

Cultural attitudes, legalities, and history

Cultural attitudes, legalities, and history regarding eating dog meat varies from country to country. Very little statistical information is available on attitudes to the consumption of dog meat.

Though the consumption of dog meat is generally viewed as taboo in Western culture, some Westerners support the right to eat dog meat and accuse other Westerners who protest against dog eating in other countries of cultural imperialism and intolerance. Joey Skaggs, for instance, organized a hoax in the United States in which a fictitious Korean restaurant asked animal shelters for unwanted dogs to be made into dog meat in order to expose the prejudice of those opposed to dog-eating. Others, however, oppose the consumption of dog meat in non-Western countries, particularly Korea. They perceive dogs as inherently emotional and friendly to humanity, arguing that the slaughter of a dog for food is excessively cruel.
In Islamic culture, eating dogs is forbidden under Muslim dietary laws.

Arctic and Antarctic

Dogs have historically been an emergency food source for various peoples in Siberia, Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland. Sled dogs are usually maintained for pulling sleds, but occasionally are eaten when no other food is available.

Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen famously ate sled dogs during his expedition to the South Pole to survive. By eating some of the sled dogs he was able to transport less dog food, thus lightening his load.

Canada

Consumption of dog meat is taboo in mainstream Canadian culture. However it may be practised by some cultural minorities. In 2003, health inspectors discovered four frozen canine carcasses in the freezer of a in Edmonton.
Subsequently, the Edmonton health inspector said that it is not illegal to sell and eat the meat of dogs and other , as long as the meat has been inspected.
In the end, these four particular canine carcasses were found to be coyotes. Ed Greenburg, an official with Edmonton's Capital Health Region, said the fact that the animals were coyotes doesn't change anything and inspectors are still looking into the possibility that uninspected meat was served at the restaurant. Under Canada's Wildlife Act, it is illegal to sell meat from any wild species. There is no law against selling and serving canine meat, including dogs, but it must be killed and gutted in front of federal inspectors.

China

Dog meat has been a source of food in parts of China from at least the time of Confucius, and possibly even before. Ancient writings from the Zhou Dynasty referred to the "three beasts" , including pig, goat, and dog. Mencius, the philosopher, recommended dog as the tastiest of all meats. Dog meat is sometimes called "fragrant meat" or " of the earth" in and "3-6 fragrant meat" in .

In the past in China, during a hard season when the food store was depleted, dogs were occasionally slaughtered as an emergency food supply. Today it is consumed for its perceived medicinal value of increasing the positive energy of one's body , and helping to regulate . Due to this belief, people eat dog meat in the winter to help to keep themselves warm. This is also the reason why it isn't eaten by some other Chinese because they think it will overheat your body.

Contrary to some popular beliefs, the Chinese eat only dogs raised specifically for meat, not those raised as pets. The dogs are slaughtered between 6 and 12 months of age allegedly because of their size at that age, and for desirability of the meat.

Despite being a socially acceptable practice, the average Chinese does not usually consume dog meat as it is relatively expensive compared to other meat choices and hence generally more accessible to affluent Chinese. More concentrated dog meat consumption areas in China are in the northeast, south and southwestern areas. Peixian County in Northern Jiangsu is well-known in China for the production of a dog-meat stew flavoured with soft-shelled turtle. The dish is said to have been invented by Fan Kuai and to have been a favourite with Liu Bang, founder of the Han dynasty. 300,000 dogs are killed in the county each year, much of the meat being processed into stew for export across China and Korea.

The Chinese normally cook the dog meat by stewing it with thick gravy or by roasting it. One method of preparing the dog carcass is by immersion in boiling water, allowing the skin to be peeled off in one pull.

In Hong Kong, a local dating from British colonial times, which has been retained after the handover to Chinese sovereignty, prohibits the slaughter of any dog or cat for use as food, whether for mankind or otherwise, on pain of fine and imprisonment. Four local men were sentenced to 30 days imprisonment in December 2006 for having slaughtered two dogs. In an earlier case, in February 1998, a Hongkonger was sentenced to one month imprisonment and a fine of two thousand HK dollars for hunting street dogs for food.
Apart from this, a large proportion of Hong Kong residents are currently against the consumption of dog meat.

For , China is the only exporter of dog meat to Japan and exported 31 tons in 2006. In Japan dog meat is available in such as Tsuruhashi, Osaka and , Tokyo. Korean residents in Japan frequent dog meat restaurants there.

Some controversy has emerged about the treatment of dogs in China not because of the consumption itself, but because of other factors like cruelty involved with the killing including allegations that animals are skinned while still alive.

In recent years, more and more Chinese people changed their attitude towards eating dog meat from 'personal choice 'to 'unnecessary cruelty'. A growing movement against consumption of cat and dog meat has gained attention from people in mainland China. Those changes began about two years after the formation of the Chinese Companion Animal Protection Network, a networking project of Chinese Animal Protection Network. Expanded to more than 40 member societies, CCAPN in January 2006 began organizing well-publicized protests against dog and cat eating, starting in Guangzhou, following up in more than ten other cities "with very optimal response from public."

Since January 2007, more than ten Chinese groups have joined an online signing event against the consumption of cat and dog meat. The signatures indicate that the participants will avoid eating cat and dog meat in the future. This online signing event received more than 42,000 signatures from public and has been circulated around the country. Supportors of this online event also organized offline events in many cities, including several high profile performance-art shows.

Some Chinese restaurants in the United States serve "imitation dog meat", which is usually pulled pork and purportedly flavored like dog meat. e.g. "Northern Chinese Restaurant", Rosemead, California

France

In France, dogs were widely eaten during famines.

Germany

Dog meat has been eaten in every major German crisis at least since the time of Frederick the Great, and is commonly referred to as "blockade mutton." In the early 20th century, consumption of dog meat in Germany was common. In 1937, inspection was introduced for pigs, dogs, boars, foxes, badgers, and other carnivores. Since 1986 dog meat is prohibited in Germany.

India

Dog meat is consumed in the remote, inaccessible mountainous parts of North-East India such as Mizoram and Nagaland.

Apart from the above area eating dog is a taboo in present day India. In addition, Hinduism, the primary religion of India has a strong vegetarian tradition. But there have been some stories about Viswamitra, vamadeva rishis eating dog meat when in complete scarcity of food supplies.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, the consumption of dog meat are usually associated with the Minahasa, a Christian ethnic group in northern Sulawesi, and Batak tribe of Northern Sumatra who consider dog meat to be a festive dish and usually reserve it for special occasions like weddings and Christmas.. Popular Indonesian dog-meat dish are Rica-Rica, "RW" or Rintek Wuuk, Rica-Rica Waung, Guk-Guk and "B1". Locally on Java there are several names for dishes made from dog meat such as SengSu , Sate Jamu and Kambing Balap.

Korea

Gaegogi literally means "dog meat" in . ''Gaegogi'', however, is often mistaken as the term for soup made from dog meat, ''bosintang''. Though proponents claim that dogs used for food are a special breed, the soup may be made from any breed of dog. Since 1984, selling dog meat has been illegal in South Korea. Dog meat manufacturing and processing are not allowed,
but the order is sometimes ignored.

The consumption of dog meat can be traced back many centuries. Dog bones were excavated in a neolithic settlement in Changnyeong, Province. One of the wall paintings in the in South Hwangghae Province, a which dates from 4th century AD, depicts a slaughtered dog in a storehouse.

Types of dishes

*bosintang - dog stew including dog meat as its primary ingredient.
*gaejangguk - dog meat soup.
*gaesuyuk - boiled dog meat.
*gaesoju - a fermented drink that is distilled by cooking the dog in a double boiler. Dog’s penis used to be added as a medicine to supplement energy.

Controversy

Use of dogs for meat and the methods of slaughter used have generated friction between dog lovers, both Western and Korean, and people who eat dogs; the conflict occasionally breaks out as headline news. During the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, Korea's capital city, the South Korean government asked its citizens not to consume dog meat to avoid bad publicity during the games. The controversy surfaced again in 2001 during the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
The organizer of the games, under pressure from animal rights groups such as PETA, demanded that the Korean government re-address the issue.

Today in Korea, a segment of the population enjoy ''bosintang'' , believing it to have medicinal properties, particularly as relates to virility. Dog meat is also believed to keep one cool during the intense Korean summer. Many consider eating meat an offense, which includes dog meat. Unlike beef, pork, or poultry, dog meat has no legal status as food in South Korea. Some in South Korea and abroad believe that dog meat should be expressly legalized so that only authorized preparers can deal with the meat in more humane and sanitary ways, while others think that the practice should be banned by law.

In recent years, more and more Korean people changed their attitude towards eating dog meat from 'personal choice 'to 'unnecessary cruelty'. Animal rights activists in South Korea protest against the custom of eating dog meat.

Mexico

Dogs were historically bred for their meat by the Aztecs. reported that when he arrived in Tenochtitlan in 1519, "small gelded dogs which they breed for eating" were among the goods sold in the city markets.
These dogs, now extinct, were called ''itzcuintlis'', and were similar to the modern Mexican Hairless Dog. They are often depicted in pre-Columbian Mexican pottery.

In May 2008 a man named Rubén Cuellar of Veracruz-Boca del Rio was accused of engaging in the slaughter of dogs and selling the meat to local taco restaurants. He was detained by police pending investigation.

Nigeria

Dogs are eaten in some states of Nigeria including Cross River, Plateau, Taraba and Gombe of Nigeria. They are believed to have medicinal powers.

Philippines

In the capital city of Manila, Metro Manila Commission Ordinance 82-05
specifically prohibits the killing and selling of dogs for food.
More generally, the Philippine Animal Welfare Act 1998
prohibits the killing of any animal other than cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, poultry, rabbits, carabaos, horses, deer and crocodiles except in the following instances:
#When it is done as part of the religious rituals of an established religion or sect or a ritual required by tribal or ethnic custom of indigenous cultural communities; however, leaders shall keep records in cooperation with the Committee on Animal Welfare;
#When the pet animal is afflicted with an incurable as determined and certified by a duly licensed veterinarian;
#When the killing is deemed necessary to put an end to the misery suffered by the animal as determined and certified by a duly licensed veterinarian;
#When it is done to prevent an imminent danger to the life or limb of a human being;
#When done for the purpose of animal population control;
#When the animal is killed after it has been used in authorized research or experiments; and
#Any other ground analogous to the foregoing as determined and certified by a licensed veterinarian.

Nevertheless, as is reported from time to time in Philippine newspapers, the eating of dog meat is not uncommon in the Philippines.
DogMeatTrade.com,an organization working in the Philippines to eliminate the eating of dogs in the country, estimates that 500,000 dogs are killed annually in the Philippine Islands for human consumption.

In the Province of Benguet, Resolution 05-392 has been passed declaring, among other things, ''"it has been an evolved cultural practice of indigenous peoples of the the butchering of animals, dogs included, as part of their rituals and practices leading to its commercialization to a limited extent, and had become an inevitable common necessity in their way of life"''; and resolving, among other things, ''"to seek the help and assistance of the Committee on Animal Welfare, Department of Agriculture, the Regional Police Office, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Provincial Police Office, Benguet Province, for the proper observance of the said rights of indigenous peoples"''.

Polynesia

Dogs were historically eaten in Tahiti and other islands of Polynesia including Hawaii

at the time of first European contact. James Cook, when first visiting Tahiti in 1769, recorded in his journal that "few were there of us but what allowe'd that a South Sea Dog was next to an English Lamb, one thing in their favour is that they live entirely upon Vegetables".

Switzerland

According to the November 21, 1996, edition of the ''Rheintaler Bote'', a newspaper covering the Rhine Valley area, the rural Swiss cantons of Appenzell and are known to have had a tradition of eating dogs, curing dog meat into and sausages, as well as using the lard for medicinal purposes. Dog sausage and smoked dog jerky remains a staple in the Swiss cantons of St. Gallen and Appenzell, where one farmer was quoted in a regional weekly newspaper as saying that "meat from dogs is the healthiest of all. It has shorter fibres than cow meat, has no hormones like veal, no antibiotics like pork."

A few years earlier, a news report on RTL Television on the two cantons set off a wave of protests from European animal rights activists and other concerned citizens. A 7000-name petition was filed to the commissions of the cantons, who rejected it, saying it wasn't the state's right to monitor the eating habits of its citizens.

The production of food from dog meat for commercial purposes, however, is illegal in Switzerland.

Taiwan

Dog meat is known by the euphemism "fragrant meat" in in Taiwan. Eating dogs has never been commonplace in Taiwan, but it is particularly eaten in the winter months, especially black dogs, which are believed to help retain body warmth.
In 2004, the Taiwanese government imposed a ban on the sale of dog meat, due to both pressure from domestic animal welfare groups and a desire to improve international perceptions, although there were some protests.
According to Lonely Planet's Taiwan guide, it is still possible to find dog meat on some restaurant menus, but this is becoming increasingly rare.

Vietnam

Dog meat is consumed in Vietnam to varying degrees of acceptability, though it predominantly exists in the north. There are multiple dishes featuring dog meat, and they often include the head, feet and internal organs. On Nhat Tan Street, District, Hanoi, many restaurants serve dog meat, often imitating each other. Dog meat restaurants can be found throughout the country. Groups of customers, usually male, seated on mats, will spend their evenings sharing plates of dog meat and drinking alcohol. Dog meat is supposed to raise the libido and is sometimes considered unsuitable for women; in other words, eating dog meat can serve as a male bonding exercise. Nevertheless, it is not uncommon for women to eat dog meat. The consumption of dog meat can be part of a ritual usually occurring toward the end of the lunar month for reasons of astrology and luck. Restaurants which mainly exist to serve dog meat may only open for the last half of the lunar month.

Types of dishes

In Vietnamese cuisine there are many ways to cook dog meat. Typically a chef will choose one of seven ways to cook dog, collectively known as "c?y t? 7 món".

* Thit cho hap - steamed dog meat
* Rua man - steamed dog in shrimp paste, rice flour and lemon grass
* Doi cho - dog sausage
* Gieng Me Mam Tom - Steamed dog in shrimp paste, ginger, spices and rice vinegar
* Thit cho nuong - grilled dog meat
* Canh Xao Mang Cho - Bamboo shoots and dog bone marrow
* Cho Xao Sa Ot - Fried dog in lemon grass and chili

United States

In the United States, it is considered a social taboo to eat dogs or other animals traditionally considered to be pets or companion animals.

Native Americans

The traditional culture surrounding the consumption of dog meat varied from tribe to tribe among the original inhabitants of North America, with some tribes relishing it as a delicacy and others treating it as an abhorrent practice. Native peoples of the Great Plains, such as the Sioux and Cheyenne, consumed it, but there was a concurrent religious taboo against the meat of wild canines. The usual preparation method was boiling.

Conpoy

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Conpoy or dried scallop is type of dried seafood product made from the adductor muscle of scallops. The smell of conpoy is marine, pungent, and reminiscent of certain salt-cured meats. Its taste is rich and umami due to its high content of various free amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, and glutamic acid. It is also rich in nucleic acids such as inosinic acid, amino acid byproducts such as taurine, and minerals, such as calcium and zinc.

Depending on production method, conpoy can made from cooked or uncooked scallops, with the former allowing enhancement and manipulation of the products final taste.

Terminology

''Conpoy'' is a loanword from the pronunciation of ''konpui'' , which literally means "dried shell".

When used for cuisines and sliced up for cooking, it is generally referred to as

Usage

In Hong Kong, conpoy from two types of scallops are common. Conpoy made from ''Atrina pectinata'' or ''kongyiu'' , a freshwater scallop from mainland China, is small and milder in taste. ''Pationopecten yessoensis'' or ''sinpui'' , a sea scallop imported from Japan , produces a conpoy that is stronger and richer in taste.

Like many dried foods, conpoy was originally made as a way to preserve seafood in times of excess. In more recent times its use in cuisine has been elevated to gourmet status. Conpoy has a strong and distinctive flavor that can be easily identified when used in rice congee, stir fries, stews, and sauces.

XO sauce, a seasoning used for frying vegetables or seafoods in Cantonese cuisine, contains significant quantities of conpoy.

Gallery

Chinese herbs

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Chinese herbs are herbs originating from China. They are widely used in Chinese cuisine.
The use of Chinese herbs is a very popular tradition. “Many of the modern day drugs have been developed from these herbs such as the treatments for asthma and hay fever from Chinese ephedra, hepatitis remedies from schizandra fruits and licorice roots and a number of anticancer agents from trees and shrubs”. “There are several herbal drugs that invigorate the energy, nourish the blood, calm tension and regulate menstruation such as Bupleurum Sedative Pills and Women’s Precious Pills”. There are over three hundred herbs that are commonly being used today that have a history that goes back at least 2,000 years.

“The two most common way to using herbs are to make a strong tea that should be simmered for about an hour or possibly more, or to make large honey bound pills”.

Most Chinese herbs are usually used to help build and strengthen the body. The most commonly used herbs are Ginseng , wolfberry, Dong Quai , astragalus , atractylodes , bupleurum , cinnamon , coptis , ginger , hoelen , licorice , ''ephedra sinica'' , peony , rehmannia , rhubarb , and salvia . These are just a few of the herbs.
The use of Ginseng is well “over two thousand years old in Chinese medicine”. Ginseng is known to help boost your energy, reduce stress and increases your endurance. Ginseng consists of ginsenosides. “The amount of ginsenosides in ginseng depends on how the plant was cultivated and the age of the root”. “Wild ginseng is rare and commands for the highest prices on the market, but most ginseng on the market today is a reasonable price. Red Panax ginseng is the most popular form of ginseng and it is usually packaged as a liquid or tea”. Ginseng comes in two kinds, red and white. The color of the ginseng depends on how it is processed. “White ginseng is unprocessed and dries naturally. Red ginseng is preserved with steam and is believed to be more effective”. Native Americans have used American ginseng for dry coughs, constipation and fevers. “Many women found relief from night sweats and hot flashes from the use of American ginseng”. “The use of ginseng is a safe way to boost energy, vitality and your overall health”.

Wolfberry is grown in the Far East and is grown from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually fresh and sometimes used when it is dried. “Goji Berry is mostly used to treat kidney, liver, eye, and skin problems, diabetes, tuberculosis, anxiety, and insomnia. It also helps to lower the blood pressure and cholesterol levels. They are known to improve the state of health, strengthen the immune system and increasing the longevity and vitality of the human kind”.

Dong Quai is an “aromatic herb that grows in China, Japan and Korea. It is used to regulate the menstrual cycle and to treat menopausal symptoms caused by the hormonal changes”. Even though it is good for women, it also helps treat the heart, spleen, liver and kidneys that help both the men and women. The effect of the herb in treating menstrual cramps is explained by the compounds that help relax the muscle tissue and relieves pain. Dong Quai also stimulates the central nervous system, which can remedy menstrual weakness and headaches. “The use of this herb is mostly found in tea, herbal preparations, capsules and extracts. It usually comes in tablet, liquid extract and raw root forms. For the best use of the Dong Quai to provide long term relief from menopause syndromes is to take it regularly between 8 and 12 weeks and especially at the end of the treatment”. “Using Dong Quai regularly relieves menstrual cramps, prevents the symptoms of menopause and PMS, corrects hormone imbalance and acts as a general tonic for the female reproductive system”. “There isn’t a certain amount of dosage for Dong Quai but in Chinese medicine Dong Quai is made in a special way- it is boiled or soaked in wine, then the liquid is taken orally while the root is being removed”. “In the United States and Europe, Dong Quai is a very popular flavoring component in food products such as ice cream, candy, gelatins and puddings but in Asia it is most likely used to treat female troubles”.

Astragalus is a root used for immune deficiencies and allergies. “The Chinese use the dried sliced or powdered root to boost the immune system, to increase the body resistance to infections, healing allergies and to raise and renew vitality. Astragalus is usually mixed with other herbs to make tea such as ginseng and Codonopsis. Astragalus is known to help prevent diseases but not to cure them”.

“Atractylodes are considered very important to the treatment of digestive disorders and problems of moisture accumulation. The herb helps move moisture from the digestive tract to the blood that reduces diarrhea, gas and bloating. Atractylodes is rarely ever used by itself. It is usually included into tonic prescriptions”.

“Bupleurum is useful for the treatment of liver diseases, skin ailments, arthritis, menopausal syndrome, withdrawal from corticosteroid use, nephritis, stress-induced ulcers, and mental disorders. Bupleurum is rich in saponins that reduce inflammation and regulates hormone levels. This specific herb isn’t to be used by itself, but combined with 4 to 12 other ingredients that is made into tea, pills or tablets.”

“Cinnamon or mostly known as guizhi and rougi are twigs and bark from large tropical trees that are to warm the body, invigorate the circulation in the body, and harmonize the energy of the upper and lower body”. Cinnamon also reduces allergy reactions. The herb is usually cooked together with other herbs to make tea that regulates the circulation of blood.

Coptis is an underground stem that is one of the bitterest herbs used in Chinese medicine. “It is full of alkatoids that inhibit infections and calm nervous agitation”. Coptis is usually combined with other bitter-tasting herbs such as phellodendron, scute and gardenia. This herb has many uses including the treatment of skin diseases, intestinal infections, hypertensions and insomnia. Since coptis is such a bitter tasting herb, it is often used to make pills or tablets.

Ginger is a herb and a spice that can be used for many uses even in Chinese cuisine. In this case, it is used in Chinese medicine. “Ginger is highly spicy and is beneficial to digestion, neutralizing poisons in food, ventilating the lungs, to warm the circulation to the limbs, diarrhea and heart conditions”. “Many herbalists use ginger to treat coughs and the common cold”. Ginger is also used in making tea.

“Hoelen is a large fungus that grows on pine roots and is used alleviate irritation and transports moisture out of the digestive system into the blood stream and from the different body tissues to the bladder. When parts of the pine root is mixed with the herb, it is called fushen and produces a mild sedative action”.

Licorice or gancao are roots that have an extremely sweet taste but is a little bitter and are said to neutralize toxins, relieve inflammation, and enhance digestion. The use of licorice is to treat hepatitis, sore throat, and muscle spasms. When licorice is baked with honey it can also help in the treatment of hyperthyroidism and heart valve diseases.

Ma-huang is another type of herb. “Ma-huang is a stem-like herb that stimulate perspiration, open the breathing passages and invigorate the central nervous system”. “It is said that ma-huang has a metabolic enhancer that can burn more calories and quicker than fro those that are trying to lose weight”. Ma-huang can be made into a tea or can be used in an extract form but powdered ma-huang is rarely ever used.

Peony or is also known as baishao and chihshao is a flower where the Chinese use the root of the peony to regulate the blood. “The root of the peony relaxes the blood vessels, reduces platelt sticking, nourishes the blood and promotes circulation to the skin and extremities”. “The roots of both wild and cultivated are used. The wild peonies “red peony” are a fibrous root that is used to stimulate blood circulation. The cultivated peony “white peony” is a dense root that nourishes the blood. Peony is often combined with tang-kuei or licorice”.

“Rehmannia or dihuang is a root where the dark, moist part of the herb is used to nourish the blood and the hormonal system. It is usually used in the treatment problems of aging because the herbs ability to restore the levels of several declining hormones. There are two forms of the herb that are currently used. One is designated shengdihuang or raw rehmannia is given to reduce inflammation. The other designated shoudihuang or cooked rehmannia is used as a nourishing tonic. Often the two forms are combined together in equal proportions to address inflammatory problems. This herb is mostly used in making decoctions or dried decoctions”.

“Rhubarb is a large root and was once one of the first herbs that was imported from China. Rhubarb is a reliable laxative and it enhances the appetite when it is taken before meals in very small amounts. It also promotes blood circulation and relieving pain in cases of injury or inflammation and inhibiting intestinal infections. Rhubarb can also reduce autoimmune reactions. The impact of the rhubarb depends on how it is prepared. If the rhubarb is cooked for a long time, the laxative actions are reduced but other actions are retained”.

“Salvia are the deep roots of this Chinese sage plant. It is applied in the cases where the body tissues have been damaged by disease or injury. Salvia is given for post-stroke syndrome, traumatic injury, chronic inflammation and/or infection, and degenerative diseases. It is best known for its ability to promote circulation in the capillary beds or the microcirculation system. Also, salvia lowers blood pressure, helps reduce cholesterol and enhances functions of the liver. Salvia can be taken alone or consumed with other herbs, teas or pills”.

“Tang-kuei is a long root that is known as a blood nourishing agent. It is highly used among women because teng-kuei will help regulate uterine blood flow and contraction but when it is in complex formulas it can be used by both men and women to nourish the blood, moisten the intestines, improve the circulation, calm tension and relieve pain. Tang-kuei can be made as tea or cooked with chicken to make soup and the taste is quite strong”.

Chinese cabbage

2008-09-17T07:56:00.000-07:00

Chinese cabbage also known as snow cabbage, is a leaf vegetable commonly used in Chinese cuisine. The vegetable is related to the Western cabbage and of the same species as the . There are many variations on its name, spelling, and scientific classification.

History

Chinese cabbage has been cultivated for over six thousand years in China. ''Brassica rapa'' seeds have been found in jars in the excavated New Stone Age settlement of Banpo. They were a common part of the diet in southern China by the 5th century.

The Ming Dynasty pharmacologist Li Shizhen studied the Chinese cabbage for its medicinal qualities. Before this time the Chinese cabbage was largely confined to the Yangtze River Delta region. The Chinese cabbage as it is known today is very similar to a variant bred in Zhejiang around the 14th century. During the following centuries, it became popular in northern China and the northern harvest soon exceeded the southern one. Northern cabbages were exported along the to Zhejiang and as far south as Guangdong.

They were introduced to Korea, where it became the staple vegetable for making kimchi. In the early 20th century, it was taken to Japan by returning soldiers who had fought in China during the Russo-Japanese War. At present, the Chinese cabbage is quite commonly found in markets throughout the world.

Varieties

There are two distinctly different groups of ''Brassica rapa'' used as leaf vegetables in China, and a wide range of varieties within these two groups. The binomial name ''B. campestris'' is also used.

Pekinensis

This group is the more common of the two, especially outside Asia; names such as ''da baicai'' ; ''Baguio pechay or pechay wombok'' ; ''Chinese white cabbage''; ''baechu'' , ''wongbok, nappa, or napa cabbage''; and ''hakusai'' usually refer to members of this group. ''Pekinensis'' cabbages have broad green leaves with white s, tightly wrapped in a cylindrical formation and usually, but not necessarily, forming a compact head. As the group name indicates, this is particularly popular in northern China around Beijing .

Chinensis

This group was originally classified as its own species under the name ''B. chinensis'' by . When used in English, the name ''bok choy'' typically refers to ''Chinensis''. Smaller in size, the Mandarin term ''xiao baicai'' as well as the descriptive English names ''Chinese chard'', ''Chinese mustard'', ''celery mustard'', and ''spoon cabbage'' are also employed. ''Chinensis'' varieties do not form heads; instead, they have smooth, dark green leaf blades forming a cluster reminiscent of or celery. ''Chinensis'' varieties are popular in southern China and Southeast Asia. Being winter-hardy, they are increasingly grown in Northern Europe.

Commercial variants of ''Chinensis'' include:
*''Bok Choy'' ; succulent, white stems with dark green leaves and ''Baby Bok Choy''; succulent, pale green stems with leaves the same color; both quite common in US West Coast oriental markets.
*''Choy Sum'' : also called ''yu cai'' , this brassica refers to a small, delicate version of pak choi. In appearance it is more similar to rapini or broccoli rabe, than the typical ''pak choi''. In English, it can also be called "Flowering Chinese Cabbbage" due to the yellow flowers that comes with this particular vegetable. "Choy sum" is sometimes used to describe the stem of any Chinese cabbage or the heart of ''Shanghai pak choi''.
*''Shanghai Pak Choi'' refers to dark green varieties where the varioles are also green. It is probably the most common vegetable in Shanghai, where it is simply called ''qingcai'' or ''qingjiangcai'' .

Nomenclature

In Mandarin Chinese ''bai cai'' refers to both groups of ''B. rapa''. However, the English word ''bok choy'' and its variations ''bok choi'' and ''pak choi'' are derived from the cognate, which instead denotes one specific variety of cabbage, namely those with white stems and dark green leaves. The other varieties all have different names which entered the English language as ''you choy'', ''choy sum'', ''napa'' and ''baby bok choy'', etc. Hence the English word ''bok choy'' is not equivalent to the Mandarin word ''bai cai'', though the Chinese characters are the same.

Gallery

Chinese Chestnut

2008-09-17T07:54:00.003-07:00

The Chinese Chestnut , a member of the family Fagaceae, is a species of chestnut native to China, in the provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, and Zhejiang, and also to Taiwan and Korea. It grows close to sea level in the north of its range, and at altitudes of up to 2,800 m in the south of the range. The species prefers full sun and acidic, loamy soil, and has a medium growth rate.

It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m tall with a broad crown. The are alternate, simple, 10-22 cm long and 4.5-8 cm broad, with a toothed margin. The flowers are produced in catkins 4-20 cm long, with the female flowers at the base of the catkin and males on the rest. The fruit is a densely spiny cupule 4-8 cm diameter, containing two or three glossy brown s; these are 2-3 cm diameter on wild trees. The scientific name ''mollissima'' derives from the softly downy shoots and young leaves.. Some cultivars, such as 'Kuling', 'Meiling', and 'Nanking', have large nuts up to 4 cm diameter. The nuts are sweet, and considered by some to have the best taste of any chestnut, though others state they are not as good as the American Chestnut. The nuts also provide a significant food source for wildlife.

When cultivated in close proximity to other species of chestnut , Chinese Chestnut readily cross-pollinates with them to form .

Chinese Chestnuts have evolved over a long period of time in coexistence with the bark disease chestnut blight , and have evolved a very successful resistance to the blight, probably more so than any other species of chestnut, so that, although it is not immune, it typically sustains no more than minor damage when infected. This is in stark contrast to the American Chestnut, which had no resistance to the blight, and was nearly wiped out by it after its introduction from Asia to North America. An active program has been pursued in North America to cross-breed Chinese and American Chestnut to try to maximize the traits of the American Chestnut, such as larger stature, larger leaf size, larger nut size, and greater nut sweetness, while also isolating and carrying the blight resistance from the Chinese Chestnut.

References and external links

Chenpi

2008-09-17T07:54:00.001-07:00

Chenpi or chen pi is sun-dried tangerine used as a traditional seasoning in Chinese cooking and . They are aged by storing them dry. They have a pungent and bitter taste.

Century egg

2008-09-17T07:53:00.000-07:00

Century egg, also known as preserved egg, hundred-year egg, thousand-year egg, and thousand-year-old egg, is a Chinese cuisine ingredient made by preserving duck, chicken or quail in mixture of clay, ash, salt, , and rice straw for several weeks to several months, depending on the method of processing. After the process is completed, the yolk becomes a dark green, cream-like substance with a strong odor of sulfur and ammonia, while the white becomes a dark brown, transparent jelly with little flavor or taste. The transforming agent in century egg is its alkaline material, which gradually raises the pH of egg from around 9 to 12 or more. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats, which produces a variety of smaller flavorful compounds.

Some eggs have patterns near the surface of the egg white that are likened to pine branches.

Production

The origin of the method for creating century eggs likely came about through placing eggs in mud made from alkaline clay and water in order to preserve eggs in times of plenty. The clay hardens around the egg and likely resulted in the curing and creation of century eggs instead of spoiled eggs.

Traditional

The traditional method for producing century eggs is a development and improvement from the aforementioned primitive process. Instead of using just clay, a mixture of wood ash, quicklime, and is included in the plastering mixture, thereby increasing the pH and sodium content of the clay mixture. This addition of natural alkaline compounds improved the odds of creating century eggs instead of spoilage and also increased the speed of the process. A recipe for creating century eggs through this process starts with the infusion of three pounds of tea in boiling water. To the tea, three pounds of quicklime , nine pounds of sea-salt, and seven pounds of wood ash from burning oak is mixed together into a smooth paste. Each egg is then individually covered by hand, with gloves being worn to prevent the corrosive action of the lime on skin. Each egg is then rolled in a mass of rice chaff to keep the eggs from adhering to one another before they are placed in cloth-covered jars or tightly woven baskets. In about three months, the mud slowly dries and hardens into a crust, and then the eggs are ready for consumption. The recipe makes around 100 to 150 century eggs.

Modern

Even though the traditional method is still widely practiced, modern understanding of the chemistry behind the formation of century eggs has led to many simplifications in the recipe. For instance soaking the eggs in a brine of , calcium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate for 10 days followed by several weeks of aging while wrapped in plastic is said to achieve the same effect as the traditional method. This is true to the extent that egg curing in both new and traditional methods is accomplished by introducing alkali hydroxide ions and sodium into the egg.

Although slightly poisonous, lead oxide is also known to increase the curing speed of century eggs and is thus added to the curing mixture by some century egg producers in China, which is the world's largest producer of century eggs. Zinc oxide may be used as a replacement Although zinc is an essential micronutrient it can lead to a copper deficiency, so the zinc content should be checked for safety.

Use

Century eggs can be eaten without further preparation, on their own as a side dish. As an hors d'?uvre, the Cantonese wrap chunks of this egg with slices of pickled . A Shanghainese recipe mixes chopped century eggs with chilled tofu. In Taiwan it is popular to eat century eggs on top of cold tofu with katsuobushi, soy sauce, and sesame oil in a style similar to Japanese Hiyayakko. A variation of this recipe common in northern China is to slice century eggs over chilled silken tofu, adding liberal quantities of shredded young ginger and chopped spring onions as a topping, and then drizzling light soy sauce and sesame oil over the dish, to taste. They are also used in a dish called old-and-fresh eggs, where chopped century eggs are combined with an omelet made with fresh eggs.

Some Chinese households cut them up into small chunks and cook them with rice porridge to create ''Century egg and Lean Pork congee'' , and is sometimes served in dim sum restaurants. Rice congee, lean pork, and century egg are the main ingredients. Peeled century eggs are cut into quarters or eighths and simmered together with the seasoned marinated lean slivers of pork until both ingredients are cooked into the rice congee. Fried dough sticks known as youtiao are commonly eaten with century egg congee.

On special events, like wedding banquets or birthday parties, a first course platter of sliced , pickled , sliced abalone, pickled carrots, pickled julienned daikon radish, seasoned julienned jellyfish, sliced pork, brawn and the quartered century eggs is served. This is called a ''lahng-poon'' in , which simply means cold dish.

A popular street food in Hong Kong consists of whole century eggs coated in fish meal, breaded, and deepfried, producing a snack analogous to the ubiquitous Scotch egg in the United Kingdom.

Myth

According to a persistent myth, century eggs are or once were prepared by soaking eggs in horse urine. However, this is not plausible since urine is usually acidic or very weakly alkaline, and would not actually preserve the eggs. The myth may arise from the ammonia smell created during some production processes.

=Bibliography

* Mabel Ho ''Chemistry Potpourri : Unlocking Chemistry through Investigations'', Singapore Science Centre
* H.C. Hou , , ''The United Nations University Press Food and Nutrition Bulletin'' Chapter 3, 3, ISBN 92-808-0254-2
* Taiwan Livestock Research Institute and Philippine Council for Agriculture Retrieved March 24 2007.

Cat meat

2008-09-17T07:52:00.000-07:00

Cat meat or cat flesh is meat derived from cats. It is eaten sporadically in southern China, northern Vietnam, Peru and Switzerland. Cat has also been eaten in . During wartime rationing, cats found their way into "rabbit" stews/pies and hence earned themselves the nickname "roof-rabbit".

This should not be confused with a British usage of Cat meat referring to the meat sold by a cat-meat man or cat's meat man , a person who sold skewers of horsemeat and beef to cat owners in the days before packaged petfoods. Meat from a cat would more usually be termed cat flesh.

In southern China and northern Vietnam some people consider cat flesh a good warming food during winter months. The cat's stomach and intestines are eaten, as well as the thighs, which are turned into meatballs. The head and the rest of the animal are thrown away. Cats are sometimes boiled and made into a tonic as a folk remedy for neuralgia and arthritis in Korea, though the meat by itself is not customarily eaten.

Because cats are regarded as carnivorous animals, consumption of cat meat is under or Islamic dietary laws.

Cat is a regular menu item in Peru and is used in such dishes as fricasse and stews. Cat cooking techniques are demonstrated every September at festival of Saint Efigenia in a town of La Quebrada.

Cats are eaten in some rural parts of Switzerland. The traditional recipe on farms in some regions involved cooking the cat with sprigs of thyme. . Also cat has been a traditional food in some parts of Northern Italy, particularly Vicenza, whose inhabitants are still nicknamed "magnagati"

Opposition

With the rise of pet cat ownership in China, more people have become opposed to the traditional use of cat as food. In June 2006, approximately 40 animal activists stormed the Fangji Cat Meatball Restaurant, a local restaurant specializing in cat meat in Shenzhen, China. They managed to force the restaurant to shut down and discontinue its selling of cat meat.

Those changes began about two years after the formation of the Chinese Companion Animal Protection Network, a networking project of Chinese Animal Protection Network. Expanded to more than 40 member societies, CCAPN in January 2006 began organizing well-publicized protests against dog and cat eating, starting in Guangzhou, following up in more than ten other cities "with very optimal response from public."

Black cardamom

2008-09-17T07:47:00.001-07:00

Black cardamom is a plant in the family Zingiberaceae. Its seed pods have a strong, smoky, camphor-like flavor.

The pods are used as a spice, in a manner similar to the green cardamom pods, but those have a drastically different flavor. Unlike green cardamom, this spice is rarely used in sweet dishes. Its smoky flavor and aroma derive from traditional methods of drying over open flames.

Species

There are at least two distinct species of black cardamom: ''Amomum subulatum'' and ''Amomum costatum'' or ''A. tsao-ko''. The pods of ''A. subulatum,'' used primarily in the , are the smaller of the two, while the larger pods of ''A. costatum'' are used in Chinese cuisine, particularly that of ; and Vietnamese cuisine.

Culinary uses

In India, black cardamom seeds are often an important component of the Indian spice mixture garam masala. Black cardamom is also commonly used in savory dal and rice dishes.

In China, the pods are used for long- meat dishes, particularly in the cuisine of the central-western province of Sichuan.

The pods are also often used in Vietnam, where they are called ''th?o qu?'' and used as an ingredient in the broth for the noodle soup called ''ph?''.

Black cardamom pods can be used in soups, chowders, casseroles, and marinades for smoky flavor, much in the way bacon is used.

Black cardamom is often erroneously described as an inferior substitute for green cardamom by those who are unfamiliar with the spice. Although the flavor differs from the more common green cardamom, black cardamom is sometimes used by large-scale commercial bakers because of its relative cheapness.

Medicinal uses

In Chinese medicine, tsao-ko is used to treat stomach disorders and malaria.

Packages warn not to eat the product uncooked or as a snack food.

Wolfberry

2008-09-17T07:46:00.002-07:00

Wolfberry is the common name for the fruit of two very closely related species: Lycium barbarum and L. chinense , two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae . Although its original habitat is obscure , wolfberry species currently grow in many world regions. Only in China, however, is there significant commercial cultivation.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture Germplasm Resources Information Network, it is also known as Chinese wolfberry, goji berry, barbary matrimony vine, bocksdorn, Duke of Argyll's tea tree, or matrimony vine. Unrelated to the plant's geographic origin, the names Tibetan goji and Himalayan goji are in common use in the market for products from this plant.

Significance

Renowned in Asia as a highly nutritious food, wolfberries have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for about 1,900 years . Their undocumented legend, however, is considerably older, as wolfberries are often linked in Chinese lore to Shen Nung , China's legendary First Emperor, mythical father of agriculture, and herbalist who lived circa 2,800 BC.

Since the early 21st century in the United States and other such developed countries, there has been rapidly growing recognition of wolfberries for their nutrient richness and antioxidant qualities, leading to a profusion of consumer products. Such rapid commercial development extends from wolfberry having a high ranking among superfruits expected to be part of a multi-billion dollar market by 2011.

Description

Wolfberry species are deciduous woody perennial plants, growing 1-3 m high. ''L. chinense'' is grown in the south of China and tends to be somewhat shorter, while ''L. barbarum'' is grown in the north, primarily in the Ningxia , and tends to be somewhat taller.

The botanical division named to the upper right, Magnoliophyta, identifies plants that flower and the class Magnoliopsida represents flowering plants with two embryonic seed leaves called cotyledons appearing at germination.

The order Solanales names a perennial plant with five-petaled flowers that are more or less united into a ring at the base; well-known members of the order include morning glory, bindweed, and sweet potato as well as the plants of the Solanaceae, mentioned below.

Lastly, Solanaceae is the nightshade family that includes hundreds of plant foods like potato, tomato, eggplant, wolfberry, peppers , crop commodities , and flowers .
Although the Solanales includes many plant foods, some members are poisonous .

Leaves and flower

Wolfberry leaves form on the shoot either in an alternating arrangement or in bundles of up to three, each having a shape that is either lanceolate or ovate . Leaf dimensions are 7 cm long by 3.5 cm wide with blunted or round tips.

One to three flowers occur on stems 1-2 cm in length. The is comprised of bell-shaped or tubular sepals forming short, triangular lobes. The are lavender or light purple, 9-14 cm long with five or six lobes shorter than the tube. The stamens are structured with anthers that open lengthwise, shorter in length than the .

In the northern hemisphere, flowering occurs from June through September and berry maturation from August to October, depending on latitude, altitude, and climate.

Fruit

These species produce a bright orange-red, ellipsoid berry 1-2 cm long^photo. The number of seeds in each berry varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, containing anywhere between 10-60 tiny yellow seeds that are compressed with a curved embryo. The berries ripen from July to October in the Northern hemisphere.

Etymology

"Wolfberry" is the most commonly used English name, while ''gǒuqǐ'' is the Chinese name for the berry producing plant. In Chinese, the berries themselves are called ''gǒuqǐzi'' , with ''zi'' meaning "seed" or specifically "berry". Other common names are "the Tea Tree" Interpreters of botanical nomenclature believe ''barbarum'', the species name, indicates that the wolfberry was of foreign origin, perhaps originating outside Anatolia or China, or was deemed a plant not native to the region where it was first discovered.

Together, these names are used as specific botanical identifiers in binomial nomenclature for which ''barbarum'' is the specific epithet. The end abbreviation, L., refers to , who described the species in 1753 in ''Species Plantarum''. ''L. chinense'' was first described by the Scottish botanist Philip Miller in the eighth edition of his ''The Gardener's Dictionary'', published in 1768.

In Japan the plant is known as ''kuko'' and the fruits are called ''kuko no mi'' or ''kuko no kajitsu'' ; in Korea the berries are known as ''gugija'' ; in Vietnam the fruit is called "k? t?" , "c?u k?" , "c?u k? t?" but the plant and its leaves are known more popularly as "c? kh?i"; and in Thailand the plant is called ''g?o gèe'' . In the plant is called ''dre-tsher-ma'' , with ''dre'' meaning "ghost" and ''tsher-ma'' meaning "thorn"; and the name of the fruit is ''dre-tsher-mai-dre-bu'' , with ''dre-bu'' meaning "fruit".

Cultivation

China

The majority of commercially produced wolfberries come from the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of and the of western China, where they are grown on plantations. In Zhongning County, Ningxia, wolfberry plantations typically range between 100 and 1000 acres in area.

Cultivated along the fertile aggradational floodplains of the Yellow River for more than 600 years, Ningxia wolfberries have earned a reputation throughout Asia for premium quality sometimes described commercially as "red diamonds". Government releases of annual wolfberry production, premium fruit grades, and export are based on yields from Ningxia, the region recognized with:
*The largest annual harvest in China, accounting for 42% of the nation's total yield of wolfberries, estimated at approximately 33 million kg in 2001.
* Formation of an industrial association of growers, processors, marketers, and scholars of wolfberry cultivation to promote the berry's commercial and export potential.
* Ongoing horticultural research conducted on the wolfberry plant at the Ningxia Research Institute, Yinchuan .
* The nation's only source of therapeutic grade wolfberries used by practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine.

In addition, commercial volumes of wolfberries grow in the Chinese regions of Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hebei. The oblong, red berries are very tender and must be picked carefully or shaken from the vine into trays to avoid spoiling. The fruits are preserved by slowly drying them in the shade on air exchange tables or by mechanical dehydration employing a progressively increasing series of heat exposure over 48 hours.

Wolfberries are celebrated each August in Ningxia with an annual festival coinciding with the berry harvest .

China, the main supplier of wolfberry products in the world, had total exports generating US$120 million in 2004. This production derived from 82,000 hectares farmed nationwide, yielding 95,000 tons of wolfberries.

Pesticide and fungicide use

pesticides are conventionally used in commercial wolfberry cultivation to mitigate destruction of the delicate berries by insects. Since the early 21st century, high levels of pyrethroid insecticide residues and fungicide residues , have been detected by the United States Food and Drug Administration in some imported wolfberries and wolfberry products of Chinese origin, leading to the seizure of these products. Due to the demand for products in the West, some Chinese growers are beginning to experiment with and to explore the possibility of obtaining organic certification, something that has not yet been publicly disclosed for Chinese wolfberry farms and products.

Some Western resellers may state that their wolfberries are organically grown when in fact they are not. The Green Certificate claimed by some wolfberry marketers to be the equivalent of the United States Department of Agriculture's "" seal is in actuality simply an agricultural training program for China's rural poor. China's Green Food Standard, administered by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture's China Green Food Development Center, does permit some amount of pesticide and herbicide use.

Despite some claims that wolfberries sold in Europe, the United States, and Canada meet organic standards, there is no public evidence for standardized organic certification of wolfberries from the Asian regions where they are commercially grown. Often, these berries are marketed as Tibetan or Himalayan Goji Berries that have been "wild crafted" or "wild harvested". On the contrary, however, Tibet's agriculture conventionally uses fertilizers and pesticides, and neither wolfberries of Tibetan or Himalayan origin sold outside Tibet nor organic certification of such berries have been proved.

Tibetan goji berry

Since the early 21st century, the names "Himalayan Goji berry" and "Tibetan Goji berry" have become common in the global health food market, applied to berries claimed to have been grown or collected in the region . Although none of the companies marketing such berries specifies an exact location in the Himalayas or Tibet where their berries are supposed to be grown, Earl Mindell's website states that his "Himalayan" Goji products do not actually come from the Himalayas, but instead from Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, and the Tian Shan Mountains of western Xinjiang, China.

Although ''Lycium'' species do grow in some regions of Tibet, commercial export production of wolfberries in the Tibetan Himayalas must be a myth fabricated for a marketing advantage, as this mountain range bordering the Tibetan Plateau is a region inhospitable to commercial cultivation of plant foods of any kind. In the Himalayan foothills, bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation beyond sparse, low bushes, whereas eastern valleys and plains of the Tibetan Plateau at lower altitude support growth of wild ''Lycium chinense''.

The Tibetan Plateau, comprising most of Tibet north and east of the Himalayas, lies at more than 3000 m in altitude, with poor soil and arid climate conditions unfavorable for fruit crops. Defined by the geography of Tibet, particularly in the western Himalayas, cold nighttime temperatures averaging -4°C year round with six months of continual frost would inhibit plant bud development and prevent fruit formation. Existing in Tibet are minimal subsistence agriculture and impoverished crop management and transportation facilities unsupportive of commercial berry production. Although limited fertile regions suitable for food crops exist in the valleys of Lhasa, Shigatse, Gyantse, and the Brahmaputra River, there are no objective economic, scientific, or government reports on the commercial production of ''Lycium'' berry species from these Tibetan regions.

Importance of cultivar

Described in ancient Chinese texts, ''gǒuqǐ'' has existed in China over recorded history and has likely been used to make plants dozens of times across Asia, as attested by some 90 species of boxthorn, wolfberry's genus.

Although several wolfberry marketers state that their "Tibetan goji" is a specific species, given variously as ''Lycium eleganus'', ''Lycium eleganus barbarum'', or ''Lycium eleagnus'', no such species exist. ''Elaeagnus'' is a genus of about 50-70 species of flowering plants in the Elaeagnaceae family. The vast majority of ''Elaeagnus'' species are native to temperate and subtropical regions of Asia, including ''Elaeagnus umbellata'', which grows near the Himalayas and bears an orange-red berry possibly confused with ''Lycium barbarum''.

Some Internet authors claim ''Lycium eleagnus barbarum'' is the original ''Lycium barbarum'' or an improved cultivar of it. However, ''Lycium'' and ''Elaeagnus'' are sufficiently disparate genera that successful cross-breeding is unlikely. Further, there is no evidence in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants of a ''Lycium'' species of ''Elaeagnus'' or vice versa.

United Kingdom

Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll delighted in growing exotic trees and shrubs in his garden at in Middlesex, England and introduced the plant into the United Kingdom in the 1730s where it is known as ''Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree''. It was and still is used for hedging, especially in coastal districts. Its red berries are attractive to a wide variety of British birds.

The plant continues to grow wild in UK hedgerows. On 15 January 2003, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs launched a project to improve the regulations protecting traditional countryside hedgerows, and specifically mentioned Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree as one of the species to be found growing in hedges located in Suffolk Sandlings, Hadley, Bawdsey, near Ipswich, and Walberswick.

The wolfberry has been naturalized as an ornamental and edible plant in the UK for nearly 300 years. On June 18, 2007, the FSA stated that there was a significant history of the fruit being consumed in Europe before 1997, and has removed it from the Novel Foods list . It is now legal to sell the goji berry in the UK as a food as reported by the British Food Standards Agency ..

Importation of mature plants

Importation of wolfberry plants into the United Kingdom from most countries outside Europe is illegal, due to the possibility that plants could be vectors of diseases attacking native members of the Solanaceae family, such as potato or tomato.

Uses

Wolfberries are almost never found in their fresh form outside of their production regions, and are usually sold in open boxes and small packages in . The amount of desiccation varies in wolfberries: some are soft and somewhat tacky in the manner of raisins, while others may be very hard. Wolfberries with a vibrant orange-red color may have been treated with sulfites.

Culinary

As a food, dried wolfberries are traditionally cooked before consumption. Dried wolfberries are often added to rice congee, as well as used in Chinese tonic soups, in combination with chicken or pork, vegetables, and other herbs such as , '''', ''Codonopsis pilosula'', and root. The berries are also boiled as an , often along with flowers and/or red jujubes, and packaged teas are also available. Various containing wolfberries are also produced, including some that are a blend of grape wine and wolfberries. At least one Chinese company also produces wolfberry beer, and New Belgium Brewery makes an ale with wolfberries used as flavoring. Since the early 21st century, an instant coffee product containing wolfberry extract has been produced in China.

Young wolfberry shoots and are also grown commercially as a leaf vegetable.

In the West, dried wolfberries are also eaten hand-to-mouth as a snack, in the manner of raisins, , or other dried fruit. Their taste has an accent of tomato and is similar to that of dates, or raisins, though drier, more tart, less sweet and with an herbal scent. Dried wolfberries are also used frequently in .

Medicinal

Wolfberries have long played important roles in traditional Chinese medicine where they are believed to enhance immune system function, improve eyesight, protect the liver, boost production and improve , among other effects.

In TCM terms, wolfberries are sweet in taste and neutral in nature. They act on the liver, lungs, and kidneys and enrich . They can be eaten raw, consumed as juice or wine, brewed into an herbal tea or prepared as a tincture. The berries are also used in traditional Korean medicine, and traditional Tibetan medicine.

Wolfberry leaves may be used to make tea and '''' root bark for TCM treatment of inflammatory and some types of skin diseases. A glucopyranoside and phenolic amides isolated from wolfberry root bark have inhibitory activity in vitro against human pathogenic bacteria and fungi .

An early mention of wolfberry occurs in the 7th century Tang Dynasty treatise ''Yaoxing Lun''. It is also discussed in the 16th century Ming Dynasty ''Compendium of Materia Medica'' of Li Shizhen.

From marketing literature for wolfberry products including several "goji juices", a reputation exists for wolfberry polysaccharides having extensive biological effects and health benefits, although none of these has been proved by peer-reviewed research. A May 2008 clinical study published by the peer-reviewed Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine indicated that parametric data, including body weight, did not show significant differences between subjects receiving ''Lycium barbarum'' berry juice and subjects receiving the placebo. The study concluded that subjective measures of health were improved and suggested further research in humans was necessary.

Wolfberry polysaccharides show antioxidant activity ''in vitro'' and might also have biological activities ''in vivo'' currently under research . As a source of dietary fiber, however, polysaccharides would yield products from bacterial in the , such as several short-chain fatty acids, e.g., butyric acid, which may provide health benefits.

Although the macromolecular structure of wolfberry polysaccharides has not been elucidated, preliminary structural studies appear to indicate that they exist in the form of complex glycoconjugates .

Wolfberry fruits also contain zeaxanthin, an important dietary carotenoid selectively absorbed into the retinal macula lutea where it is thought to provide antioxidant and protective light-filtering roles.
A human supplementation trial showed that daily intake of wolfberries increased levels of zeaxanthin.

Several published studies, mostly from China, have also reported possible medicinal benefits of ''Lycium barbarum'', especially due to its antioxidant properties, including potential benefits against cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases, vision-related diseases , having neuroprotective properties or as an anticancer and immunomodulatory agent.

However, in the west, none of this research has been scientifically verified, confirmed in clinical studies, or accepted by regulatory authorities.

Safety issues

A published case report described a 61-year-old Chinese woman who experienced an elevated international normalized ratio after drinking a tea made from wolfberry fruit. Further in vitro testing revealed that the tea inhibited warfarin metabolism. These observations indicate a potential herbal-drug interaction between warfarin and wolfberry. Another case report describes an 80-year-old Chinese woman on a chronic stable dose of warfarin who experienced two episodes of an elevated INR after drinking wolfberry tea.

Atropine, a toxic alkaloid found in other members of the Solanacea family, occurs naturally in wolfberry fruit. The atropine concentrations of berries from China and Thailand are variable, with a maximum content of 19 ppb, below the likely toxic amount.

Nutrient content

Macronutrients

Wolfberry contains significant percentages of a day's macronutrient needs – carbohydrates, protein, fat and dietary fiber. 68% of the mass of dried wolfberries exists as carbohydrate, 12% as protein, and 10% each as fiber and fat, giving a total caloric value in a 100 gram serving of 370 calories.

Micronutrients and phytochemicals

Wolfberries contain many nutrients and phytochemicals including

* 11 essential and 22 trace dietary minerals
* 18 amino acids
* 6 essential vitamins
* 8 polysaccharides and 6 monosaccharides
* 5 unsaturated fatty acids, including the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid
* beta-sitosterol and other phytosterols
* 5 carotenoids, including beta-carotene and zeaxanthin , lutein, lycopene and cryptoxanthin, a xanthophyll
* numerous phenolic pigments associated with antioxidant properties

Select examples given below are for 100 grams of dried berries. Other nutrient data are presented in two reference texts Superfruit is meant to imply nutrient richness with medical research results indicating potential health benefits, combined with uncommon but appealing taste, pigmentation, and antioxidant strength. During 2006-7, the market for wolfberries included 89 new product introductions in eight retail segments having an estimated sales total of $9 million, growing rapidly. An executive of one network marketing company was quoted as saying the juice market alone for wolfberries would be valued at more than $1 billion by 2013.

Other wolfberry consumer applications are as dried berries , berry pieces in granola bars, and skin soap made from seed oils.

Commercial suppliers have processed wolfberry as an additive for manufacturing, such as juice concentrate, whole fruit purée, powders from juice or juice concentrate made from spray drying, pulp powders, whole or ground seeds, seed oils , and essential oils derived from seeds.

Marketing claims under scrutiny in Europe

In February 2007, the Food Standards Agency of Great Britain, an advisor for food safety to the European Food Safety Authority of the European Union , published an inquiry to retailers and health food stores requesting evidence of significant use of wolfberries in Europe before 1997. This period would document a safety history and evaluate how "novel" the berries are in the EU, affecting their authorization status for sale.

Proponents hoped this review would provide important safeguards for consumers by checking whether new foods are suitable for the whole population, including people with food allergies. Opponents on the other hand feared it would limit consumer choice and protect monopolistic interests rather than the public. Food safety in the EU relies importantly on a scientific basis for label information on foods like wolfberries that may be claimed to furnish health benefits.

In June 2007, the FSA announced its decision that wolfberries indeed had a history of use in Great Britain before 1997. Accordingly, wolfberries do not require registration as a novel food.

Marketing claims under scrutiny in Canada and the United States

In January 2007, marketing statements for a goji juice product were subject of an investigative report by CBC Television's consumer advocacy program Marketplace .

In a review of medical literature pertaining to each proposed claim of health benefits from Himalayan Goji Juice , Gross et al. summarized that 22 of 23 claims had no evidence for providing a health benefit beyond that inferred from preliminary in vitro or laboratory animal research. For cancer specifically, four studies were reviewed in Chapter 4 of their book, but Gross et al. concluded the research was too preliminary to allow any conclusion about an anti-cancer effect of consuming wolfberries or wolfberry juice.

By one specific example in the interview, Earl Mindell claimed the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York had completed clinical studies showing that use of wolfberry juice would prevent 75% of human breast cancer cases, a statement false in three ways:
# no such project has been undertaken at Memorial Sloan-Kettering
# according to the National Cancer Institute of the US National Institutes of Health, no natural or pharmaceutical agent has been shown in clinical trials to fully prevent breast cancer, only to reduce its risk ; specifically, there are no completed or ongoing clinical trials in the United States testing the effects of wolfberries or juice on breast cancer outcomes or any other disease and
# beyond preliminary laboratory studies and one Chinese clinical trial described only in an abstract, there is no scientific evidence for wolfberry phytochemicals or wolfberry juice having cancer-preventive properties .

Significant in nutrient and phytochemical composition, wolfberries are being developed as new products in the functional food industry under FDA regulatory review since December, 2006 for label and marketing claims as being conducted in 2007 by the European Union .

During 2006, the FDA placed two goji juice distributors on notice with warning letters about marketing claims. These statements were in violation of the United States Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act because they "establish the product as a drug intended for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease" when wolfberries or juice have had no such scientific evaluation. Additionally stated by the FDA, the goji juice was "not generally recognized as safe and effective for the referenced conditions" and therefore must be treated as a "new drug" under Section 21 of the Act. New drugs may not be legally marketed in the United States without prior approval of the FDA, as stated in the letters below:

* Dynamic Health Laboratories Inc. of Brooklyn, New York, May 8, 2006
* Healthsuperstore.com of Elk Grove, California, August 7, 2006

Bibliography

*Ai, Changshan . ''Zhi Bu Liang Yi Hua Gou Qi'' . Changchun, China: Jilin Ke Xue Ji Shu Chu Ban She. ISBN 7538424024. ISBN 9787538424027.
*
*Gross, Paul M.; Xiaoping Zhang; and Richard Zhang . ''Wolfberry: Nature's Bounty of Nutrition & Health''. Charleston, South Carolina, United States: BookSurge Publishing. ISBN 1419620487. ISBN 9781419620485.
*Mindell, Earl; and Rick Handel . ''Goji: The Himalayan Health Secret''. Momentum Media Health Series. Dallas, Texas, United States: Momentum Media. ISBN 0967285526. ISBN 9780967285528.
*Mindell, Earl . ''Dr. Earl Mindell's Goji: The Himalayan Health Secret''. 2nd ed. Lake Dallas, Texas, United States: Momentum Media. ISBN 0967285577. ISBN 9780967285573.
*Oyama, Sumita . ''Kuko o Aishite Junen'' . Tokyo, Japan: Shufu no Tomosha.
*Shufo no Tomosha . ''Kuko no koyo'' . Tokyo, Japan.
*Takayama, Eiji . ''Jinsei no Honbutai wa Rokujissai Kara: Furo Choju Kuko no Aiyo'' . Tokyo, Japan: Koyo Shobo
*Young, Gary; Ronald Lawrence; and Marc Schreuder . ''Discovery of the Ultimate Superfood: How the Ningxia Wolfberry and Four Other Foods Help Combat Heart Disease, Cancer, Chronic Fatigue, Depression, Diabetes and More''. Orem, Utah, United States: Essential Science Publishing. ISBN 0943685443. ISBN 9780943685441.
*Zhang, Yanbo . ''Molecular Approach to the Authentication of Lycium barbarum and its Related Species''. M. Phil. thesis. Hong Kong, China: Hong Kong Baptist University
*Zhao, Yue . ''The Market Prospect of Ningxia Wolfberry/Wolfberry Products in China''. Thesis. Netherlands: University of Professional Education Larenstein Deventer.

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Botanical databases

*
*
*Information about ''Lycium barbarum'' L. from the
*
*, USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network -. . National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
*
*, from the Plant Viruses Online VIDE database

Medical databases

* Searching for ''Lycium'' on the database finds 146 papers of interest; 87 of these are for ''Lycium barbarum'' and 33 for ''Lycium chinense'' .
*
*

News stories

* from ''TibetInfoNet'', June 29, 2007
* by Simon Parry, from ''South China Morning Post'', December 2, 2006
* from ''China Daily'', August 30, 2006
* from ''China Daily'', July 19, 2004
*
*
* by Dr. Ralph Moss
* The Daily Truth by Jack Marx, Sydney Morning Herald, June 25, 2007
*, Tillsonburg News, August 1, 2008

Video and Pictures

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*

Winter melon

2008-09-17T07:46:00.001-07:00

The winter melon also called white gourd or ash gourd, is a vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable. The fruit is fuzzy when young. By maturity, the fruit loses its hairs and develops a waxy coating, giving rise to the name wax gourd, and providing a long shelf life. The melon may grow as large as 1-2 metres in length. The word "melon" in the name is somewhat misleading, as the fruit is not sweet.

Originally cultivated in Southeast Asia, the winter melon is now widely grown in East Asia and South Asia as well. In North India it is cut into rectangular pieces and boiled in a sugar syrup to create a translucent, almost clear candy or sweet, and is often flavored with rose water. In this form it keeps and cans well allowing it to be sold in canned form around the world. In South Indian cuisine it is used to make curries.

The winter melon requires very warm weather to grow but can be kept through the winter much like winter squash. The winter melon can typically be stored for 12 months. The melons are used in stir fry or to make winter melon soup, which is often served in the scooped out melon, which has been intricately decorated by scraping off the waxy coating.

Occasionally, it is used to produce a fruit drink which has a very distinctive taste. It is usually sweetened with caramelised sugar, which enhances the taste.

The shoots, tendrils, and of the plant may also be eaten as .
----

Winter melon is a common name for the inodorus cultivar group of the muskmelon , or one of its members alternatively known as casaba, , or Persian.

Vernacular names

* : or
* 冬瓜（とうがん） tōgan
* 冬瓜 , donggwa, donga
* : ash gourd, Chinese winter melon, fuzzy melon, petha, wax gourd, winter melon, white gourd, green pumpkin
* : courge cireuse, bidao, courgette velue
* Hindi: petha, pethakaddu
* : neer poosanikai
* : Komora
* : Chal kumra
* : kumbalanga
* : booDida Gummadikaaya
* : boodagumbala
* Marathi: ?????
* : beligo
* : kundol
* : kundur
* : abóbora d’água, comalenge
* : ???
* : bí ?ao
*: Kyauk Pha-Yon Thee

Gallery

Wheat gluten (food)

2008-09-17T07:45:00.001-07:00

Wheat gluten, also called seitan , wheat meat, gluten meat, or simply gluten, is a food made from the gluten of wheat. It is made by washing wheat flour dough with water until all the starch dissolves, leaving insoluble gluten as a gummy mass, which is subject to further processing.

Wheat gluten, although not as well known, is an alternative to soybean-based such as tofu. Some types of wheat gluten have a texture more like that of meat than most other substitutes, because of their chewy and/or stringy texture. Wheat gluten often is used instead of meat in , , , and s. is a common use for wheat gluten.

Wheat gluten is most popular in China, where it was first developed, as well as in the cuisines of other and Southeast Asian nations. In Asia, it is commonly found on the menus of restaurants catering primarily to customers who do not eat meat.

Because it was first popularized in western nations during the second half of the 20th century through its promotion by proponents of the macrobiotic diet, ''seitan'' is also the name by which wheat gluten is best known in most English-speaking nations. In the West, prepared wheat gluten is generally available only in and health food stores .

Forms

Chinese

Wheat gluten, called ''miàn jīn'' in is believed to have originated in ancient China, as a for adherents of Buddhism, particularly some Mahayana Buddhist monks, who are strict vegetarians . One story attributes the invention of imitation meat to chefs who made it for Chinese emperors who, traditionally, observed a week of vegetarianism each year . ''Miàn jīn'' is often before being cooked in Chinese cuisine, which confers a crispy rind that enhances the texture of the gluten.

There are three primary Chinese forms of wheat gluten:
#Oily/oil fried gluten : Raw gluten that has been torn into small bits, then deep fried into small puffy balls of around 3–5 cm in diameter and sold as "imitation abalone". They are golden brown in color, and or boiled in a savory soup or stew before eating. They are frequently paired with '''' .
#*Larger fried balls of gluten, called ''miàn jīn qiú'' or ''miàn jīn pao'' , which may be up to 5 inches in diameter, are sometimes seen in Asian supermarkets. These are often stuffed with meat or tofu mixtures and served as a dish called "gluten meatballs" or "gluten stuffed with meat" .
#Steamed gluten : Raw gluten that has been wrapped around itself to form a long sausage shape which is then steamed. This type of gluten has a dense texture and ranges from off-white to light greenish grey in color. It is torn open into strips before being used as an ingredient in recipes. When this sausage-shaped gluten is thickly sliced into medallions, the resulting form is called ''miàn lún'' . Larger blocks of steamed gluten are sometimes colored pink and sold as vegetarian "mock ham."
#Baked spongy gluten : Similar in texture to a sponge, ''kao fu'' is made by raw gluten, then baking or steaming it. These are sold as small blocks in Chinese markets and are then diced up and cooked. This type of gluten absorbs its cooking liquid like a sponge and is enjoyed for its "juicy" character. Chinese ''kao fu'' is coarser in texture than its Japanese counterpart, ''yaki-fu'', due to the relatively larger air bubbles it contains. ''Kao fu'' is available in fresh, frozen, and canned forms.

''Miàn jīn'' is also available in Asian grocery stores in canned and jarred forms, often in combination with peanuts or mushrooms. Such canned and jarred gluten is commonly eaten as an accompaniment to as part of a traditional Chinese breakfast.

Freshly prepared ''miàn jīn'' can be difficult to find in Chinese restaurants other than those specializing in Buddhist or vegetarian cuisine. Depending on its method of preparation and ingredients used, both fresh and preserved ''miàn jīn'' can be used to simulate pork, poultry, beef, or even seafood.

Japanese

In Japanese cuisine, the traditional type of wheat gluten is called ''fu'' .

There are two main forms of ''fu'', the raw ''nama-fu'', and the dry ''yaki-fu'':

#Raw : Solid gluten is mixed with glutinous rice flour and millet and steamed in large blocks. It may be shaped and colored in a variety of ways, using ingredients such as mugwort. Popular shapes include autumn-colored maple leaves, , and other generally "cute" forms. Such shapes and colors enhance the attractiveness of the cooked product since steamed gluten has an unappealing grey tone. ''Nama-fu'' is an important ingredient in , the Buddhist vegetarian cuisine of Japan. It may also be used as an ingredient in wagashi, Japanese confectionery.
#*Fu-manjū is a type of made from ''nama-fu''. Solid gluten is sweetened and filled with various sweet fillings such as red bean paste. They are then wrapped in leaves and steamed in a manner similar to that used to prepare Chinese zongzi.
#Dry baked : The gluten is leavened with baking powder and baked into long bread-like sticks. It is often sold in cut form, as hard dry discs resembling croutons or bread rusk. Yaki-fu is typically added to miso soup and sukiyaki, where it absorbs some of the broth and acquires a fine texture that is lighter and fluffier than its Chinese equivalent. It is the most commonly available type of ''fu'' in Japanese supermarkets.

In Japan, seasoned "gluten meat" is not well known or widely available, despite the macrobiotic diet's Japanese origins. When used, the terms for this food are rendered in katakana as , or, rarely, . Outside macrobiotic circles, these terms are virtually unknown in Japan, and they do not typically appear in Japanese dictionaries.

Vietnamese

In , wheat gluten is called ''mì c?ng'' or ''mì c?n'', and is prepared in a similar fashion to Chinese ''miàn jīn''. Along with tofu, it is a part of the Buddhist cuisine of Vietnam, which is strongly influenced by that of China.

Macrobiotic

''Seitan'', a neologism of origin, is the name used to refer to wheat gluten in the system of cooking and health, as formulated by the Japanese-born philosopher George Ohsawa . According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', it is said to have been coined by Ohsawa in the early 1960s, but its etymology is uncertain, with the most likely explanation being that it is derived from the Japanese ''sei-'' , or ''-sei'' + ''tan-'', as in ''tanpaku'' .

As prepared in macrobiotic practice, seitan consists of powdered wheat gluten, which is extracted from flour by washing the flour and rinsing away the starch. The gluten powder is then mixed with just enough water to form a stiff paste, which is then kneaded in order to produce a firm, stringy texture. The dough is then cut into pieces and cooked via steaming, boiling, frying, or other methods. While seitan is itself rather flavorless, it holds a marinade very well and is usually simmered in a ''dashi'' made from soy sauce, kombu, ginger, and sometimes also sesame oil.

Western

Since the mid-20th century, wheat gluten has been increasingly adopted by vegetarians in western nations as a realistic meat substitute, particularly by vegetarians who previously ate meat and miss its taste and/or texture.

It is sold in block, strip and shaped forms in North America, where it is very difficult to find outside of Asian food markets, health food stores and cooperatives. Some companies also sell powdered gluten , for those who wish to make their own gluten from scratch. Wheat gluten is also used by bakers to increase the chewyness of breads. The block form is most prevalent and is often flavored with or portabello mushrooms, fresh cilantro or onion, or barbecue sauce, or packed in a vegetable-based broth. In strip form, it is usually packed to be eaten right out of the package as a high-protein snack. Shaped seitan products, in the form of "ribs" and patties, are usually flavored with barbecue, teriyaki or other savory sauces.

Additionally,there is an imitation turkey made in part of seitan which is marketed around the Thanksgiving holiday, providing an alternative to the traditional Thanksgiving turkey centerpiece. Wheat gluten is also used by The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem, a vegan African American religious sect which operates a chain of restaurants called Soul Vegetarian, to produce a vegetarian sandwich called the Garvey Burger. In North America, there are also several brand-name meat substitutes, such as Protein Chef, which are used in the restaurant and food service markets.

Use

In Chinese cuisine, most forms of wheat gluten are typically or braised, such that it can absorb the flavours of the braising liquid. Fried wheat gluten balls that are large and puffed-up, such as ''da mianjin qiu'' can be stuffed with fillings. It is not common in Chinese cuisine for wheat gluten to be consumed "plain."

In Japanese cuisine, gluten is cooked and simmered in soup such that it gains flavour from the broth. In addition, baked wheat gluten with its spongy texture is added directly to soup as it is served for use as a decorative condiment. In Japan, wheat gluten is also directly consumed in the form of dumplings after they have been steamed.

Wheat gluten is also sometimes used in pet foods. Wheat gluten from China adulterated by melamine has been blamed as the cause of a widespread in March 2007.

Food additive

Gluten is used as a or thickener in products such as ice-cream and ketchup, where it may be unexpected. Foods of this kind present a problem because the hidden gluten constitutes a hazard for people with celiac disease.

The "Codex Alimentarius" set of international standards for food labelling has a standard relating to the labelling of products as "gluten free", however this standard does not apply to "foods which in their normal form do not contain gluten".

Water caltrop

2008-09-17T07:41:00.005-07:00

The water caltrop or water chestnut is either of two species of the genus ''Trapa''--''Trapa natans'' and ''Trapa bicornis''. Both species are floating aquatic plants, growing in slow-moving water up to 5 meters deep, native to warm temperate parts of Eurasia and Africa. They bear ornately shaped fruits that resemble the head of a bull, each containing a single very large starchy seed. It has been cultivated in China for at least 3,000 years for these seeds, which are boiled and sold as an occasional streetside snack in the south of that country.

Etymology

The generic name ''Trapa'' is derived from the word for "thistle," calcitrappa, as is the name caltrop. Caltrop also refers to a small iron weapon used in medieval times, with four points, designed to pierce the of enemy cavalry horses. A similar device was used during World War II to destroy the truck tires of enemy convoys.

The plant's Chinese name is ''língjiǎo'' , ''líng'' meaning "water caltrop" and ''jiǎo'' meaning "horn."

This plant should not be confused with the unrelated ''Eleocharis dulcis'', also called water chestnut, an aquatic plant raised for food since ancient times in China. ''Eleocharis dulcis'' is a whose round, crisp-fleshed corms are common in Western-style Chinese food.

Biology

The water caltrop's submerged reaches 12 to 15 ft in length, anchored into the mud by very fine roots. It has two types of , finely divided feather-like submerged leaves born along the length of the stem, and undivided floating leaves born in a rosette at the water's surface. The floating leaves have saw-tooth edges and are ovoid or triangular in shape, 2–3 cm long, on inflated petioles 5–9 cm long which provide added buoyancy for the leafy portion. Four-petaled white flowers form in early summer and are insect-pollinated. The fruit is a nut with four 0.5 in , barbed spines. Seeds can remain viable for up to 12 years, although most will germinate within the first two years.

The plant spreads by the rosette and fruits detaching from the stem and floating to another area on currents or by fruits clinging to objects, birds and other animals.

History

Investigations of archaeological material from southern Germany indicate that the prehistoric population of that region may well have relied significantly upon wild water chestnuts to supplement their normal diet and, in times of cultivated cereal crop failure, water chestnuts may even have been the main dietary component.

In the Zhou Dynasty, water caltrop was an important food for worship as prayer offerings. The Rites of Zhou mentioned that a worshipper "should use a bamboo basket containing dried water caltrops, the seeds of and chestnuts" . The ''Chinese Herbal Medicine Summary'' indicates that water caltrop can help fever and drunkenness.

It was possible to buy water chestnuts in markets all over Europe until 1880. In northern Italy the nuts were offered roasted, much as sweet chestnuts are still sold today. At many places in Europe water chestnuts were known and used for human food until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, however, it is a rare plant. There may be several reasons for its near extinction, such as climate fluctuations, changes in the nutrient content of water bodies, and the drainage of many wetlands, ponds and oxbow lakes.

In Australia, and its state of water caltrop is declared as a noxious weed.

Disease

Fasciolopsiasis can be transmitted by the surface of the plants.

Trepanging

2008-09-17T07:41:00.003-07:00

Trepanging is the collection or harvesting of sea cucumbers, also called "trepang". One who does this activity is called a trepanger.

Trepanging is comparable to , , , musseling, and other forms of "" whose goal is the acquisition of edible invertebrates rather than fish.

Commerce

While largely unknown in the , trepanging is an economically important activity in some areas of the globe, particularly Southeast Asia. Sea cucumber is considered a in Far East countries such as Malaysia, China, Japan, and Indonesia.

Besides being valued for flavour-enhancing properties, sea cucumber is widely regarded as a stimulant and aphrodisiac. There is evidence that its reputed properties are actually true.

Based upon the belief in the healing properties of trepang, and cosmetics companies have developed pills, oils, and creams based on their extracts. The effectiveness of sea cucumber extract in tissue repair has been the subject of recent scientific study.

Methods

As slow-moving creatures related to starfish and sea urchins, sea cucumbers are found on the sea floor. As such, trepanging is accomplished by spearing, , or simply picking the animals up by hand when they are exposed at low tide.

Traditionally, sea cucumbers were placed in before being and to preserve the trepang for journey to market.

History

:''See also: History of fishing

To supply the markets of Southern China, Muslim trepangers from Makassar, Indonesia traded with the Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Land from the early 1700s or before. This Macassan contact with Australia is the first recorded example of interaction between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours.

This contact had a major . The Macassans exchanged goods such as cloth, tobacco, , rice and for the right to trepang coastal waters and employ local labour. Macassan pidgin became a ''lingua franca'' along the north coast among different Indigenous Australian groups who were brought into greater contact with each other by the seafaring Macassan culture.

Remains of Macassan trepang processing plants from the 18th and 19th centuries can still be found at Australian locations such as Port Essington and Groote Eylandt, along with stands of tamarind trees introduced by the seafaring Muslims.

Toona sinensis

2008-09-17T07:41:00.001-07:00

Toona sinensis , is a species of ''Toona'' native to eastern and southeastern Asia, from North Korea south through most of eastern, central and southwestern China to Nepal, northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and western Indonesia.

It is a deciduous tree growing to 25 m tall with a trunk up to 70 cm diameter. The bark is brown, smooth on young trees, becoming scaly to shaggy on old trees. The are pinnate, 50–70 cm long and 30–40 cm broad, with 10–40 leaflets, the terminal leaflet usually absent but sometimes present; the individual leaflets 9–15 cm long and 2.5–4 cm broad, with an entire or weakly serrated margin. The flowers are produced in summer in panicles 30–50 cm long at the end of a branch; each flower is small, 4–5 mm diameter, with five white or pale pink petals. The fruit is a 2–3.5 cm long, containing several winged seeds.

Cultivation and uses

The young leaves are extensively used as a vegetable in China; they have an onion-like flavour. The fruit, bark, and roots are used in traditional Chinese medicine for a wide variety of conditions. Plants with red young leaves are considered of better flavour than those where the young leaves are green.

The timber is hard and reddish; it is valuable, used for furniture making. It is by far the most cold-tolerant species in the Meliaceae and the only member of the family that can be cultivated successfully in northern Europe.

Tofu

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Salt coagulants

*Calcium sulfate : The traditional and most widely used coagulant to produce Chinese-style tofu. It produces a tofu that is tender but slightly brittle in texture. The coagulant itself has no perceivable taste. Use of this coagulant also makes a tofu that is rich in calcium, an important mineral for treating and preventing osteoporosis. As such, many tofu manufacturers choose to use this coagulant to be able to market their tofu as a good source of calcium.

*Chloride-type Nigari salts or Lushui - Magnesium chloride and calcium chloride: Both of these salts have a high solubility rate in water and affect soy protein in the same way, whereas gypsum is only very slightly soluble in water and acts differently in soy protein precipitation, the basis for tofu formation. These are the coagulants used to make tofu with a smooth and tender texture. In Japan, a white powder called ''nigari'', which consists primarily of magnesium chloride, is produced from after the sodium chloride is removed and the water evaporated, which is called Lushui in China. Depending on its production method, ''nigari/Lushui'' may also contain small quantities of magnesium sulfate , potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and trace amounts of other naturally occurring salts. Although the term ''nigari'' is derived from ''nigai'', the Japanese word for "bitter," neither ''nigari'' nor pure magnesium chloride imparts a perceivable taste to the finished tofu. Calcium chloride is a common coagulant for tofu in North America.

Acid coagulants

*Glucono delta-lactone : A naturally occurring organic acid also used in cheese making, which produces a very fine textured tofu that is almost jelly-like. This coagulant is used especially for "silken" and softer tofus, and confers an almost imperceptible sour taste to the finished product. Commonly used together with calcium sulfate to give soft tofu a smooth tender texture.

Enzyme coagulants

*Among enzymes that have been shown to produce tofu are papain, and alkaline and neutral from microorganisms. In the case of papain, the enzyme to substrate ratio, by weight, was held constant at 1:400. An aliquot of 1% crude papain was added to "uncooked" soy milk at room temperature and heated to 90–100 degrees Celsius. Its texture can be described as similar to that of very fine custard. In Japan and Korea, traditional soft tofu is made with . ''Douhua'' , or ''tofu brain'' , often eaten as a dessert, but sometimes with salty pickles or hot sauce added instead, is another type of soft tofu with an even higher moisture content. Because it is nearly impossible to pick up this type of tofu with chopsticks, it is generally eaten with a spoon. ''Edamame tofu'' is a Japanese variety of ''kinugoshi tōfu'' made from ''edamame'' ; it is pale green in color and often studded with whole ''edamame''.
* Asian firm tofu : Although drained and pressed, this form of fresh tofu still contains a great amount of moisture. It has the firmness of raw meat but bounces back readily when pressed. The texture of the inside of the tofu is similar to that of a firm custard. The skin of this form of tofu has the pattern of the muslin used to drain it and is slightly more resilient to damage than its inside. Can be picked up easily with chopsticks.

Processed tofu

Many forms of processed tofus exist, due to the varied ways in which fresh tofu can be used. Some of these techniques likely originate from the need to preserve tofu before the days of refrigeration, or to increase its shelf life and longevity. Other production techniques are employed to create tofus with unique textures and flavors.

Fermented

*Pickled tofu : Also called "preserved tofu" or "fermented tofu," this food consists of cubes of dried tofu that have been allowed to fully air-dry under hay and slowly ferment from aerial bacteria.
*Stinky tofu : A soft tofu that has been fermented in a unique vegetable and fish brine.

The skin can also be bunched up to stick form and dried into something known as "tofu bamboo" , or myriad other forms. Since tofu skin has a soft yet rubbery texture, it is folded or shaped into different forms and cooked further to imitate meat in vegetarian cuisine.

Some factories dedicate production to tofu skin and other soy membrane products.

Okara

, sometimes known in the west as soy pulp, is the fibre, protein, and starch left over when soy milk has been extracted from ground soaked soybeans.

:''To hpu'' may be fried as fritters cut in rectangular or triangular shapes; the latter fried twice, hence the name ''hnapyan gyaw'' , is the common form in the Shan States. ''To hpu nway'', creamy and soft before it sets, is also popular served hot on its own or with rice noodles. ''To hpu gyauk'', which are deep fried, thin, and crispy, are similar to or fish crackers.

:Rice tofu, called ''hsan to hpu'' is made from rice flour and is white in color, with the same consistency as yellow Burmese tofu when set. It is eaten as a salad in the same manner as yellow tofu.

Preparation

Tofu has very little flavor or smell on its own. As such, tofu can be prepared either in savory or sweet dishes, acting as a canvas for presenting the flavors of the other ingredients used.

Eastern methods

In Asian cooking, tofu is eaten in myriad ways, including raw, stewed, stir-fried, in soup, cooked in sauce, or stuffed with fillings.

Lightly flavored

The light greenish "bean" smell of tofu is much enjoyed in East Asian cuisines and fresh tofu is often eaten plain or simply flavored.

In Japan, a common lunch in the summer months is ''hiyayakko'' , silken or firm Asian tofu served with freshly grated ginger, scallions, and soy sauce. In many parts of China, fresh tofu is similarly eaten with soy sauce or further flavored with ''katsuobushi'' shavings, century eggs , and sesame seed oil.

In Chinese cuisine, '''' is served with toppings like boiled peanuts, azuki beans, cooked oatmeal, tapioca, mung beans and a syrup flavored with ginger or almond. During the summer, ''dòuhuā'' is served with crushed ice; in the winter, it is served warm.

In Korean cuisine, ''dubu jorim'' consists of cubes of firm tofu that are pan fried and seasoned with soy sauce, garlic, and other ingredients. Cubes of cold, uncooked tofu seasoned with soy sauce, scallions, and ginger, prepared in a manner similar to the Japanese ''hiyayakko'' are also enjoyed.

In the Philippines, the sweet delicacy taho is made of fresh tofu with brown sugar syrup and sago. The Malaysian version of taho or douhua is called tofufa. Warm soft tofu is served in 'slices' in a bowl with either pandan-flavored sugar syrup or palm sugar syrup.

In Vietnam, ''dòuhuā'' is pronounced ''??u h?''. This variety of soft tofu is made and carried around in an earthenware jar. It is served by being scooped into a bowl with a very shallow and flat spoon, and eaten with either powdered sugar and lime juice or with a ginger-flavored syrup. It is generally eaten hot, even during summer.

Fried

A common cooking technique in many parts of East and Southeast Asia involves deep frying tofu in vegetable oil, sunflower oil, and canola oil to varied results. Although tofu is often sold preprocessed into fried items, pre-fried tofu is seldom eaten directly and requires additional cooking. Depending on the type of tofu used, the texture of deep fried tofu may range from crispy on the outside and custardy on the inside, to puffed up like a plain doughnut. The former is usually eaten plain in Chinese cuisine with garlic soy sauce, while the latter is either stuffed with or cooked in soups. although little else is known about the exact historic origins of tofu and its method of production. While there are many theories regarding tofu's origins, historical information is scarce enough as to relegate the status of most theories to either speculation or legend. Like the origins of cheese and butter, the exact origin of tofu production may never be known or proven.

What is known is that tofu production is an ancient technique. Tofu was widely consumed in ancient China, and techniques for its production and preparation were eventually spread to many other parts of Asia.

Three theories of origin

The most commonly held of the three theories of tofu's origin maintains that tofu was invented in northern China around 164 BC by Lord Liu An, a Han Dynasty prince. Although this is possible, the paucity of concrete information about this period makes it difficult to conclusively determine whether Liu An invented the method for making tofu. Furthermore, in Chinese history, important inventions were often attributed to important leaders and figures of the time. This may have possibly been the way that tofu was discovered, since soy milk has been eaten as a savory soup in ancient as well as modern times. Its technical plausibility notwithstanding, there is little evidence to prove or disprove that tofu production originated in this way.. The book ''Tofu Hyakuchin'' , published in the Edo period, lists 100 recipes for cooking tofu.

The rise in acceptance of tofu likely coincided with that of Buddhism as it is an important source of proteins in the religion's vegetarian diet.

In 1995, a report from the University of Kentucky, financed by St. Louis, Missouri , concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein LDL and triglyceride concentrations. However, High Density Lipoprotein did not increase. Soy phytoestrogens absorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research, PTI, in 1998, filed a petition with Food and Drug Administration for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease.

The FDA granted this health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." 100 grams of firm tofu, for instance, contains 11.5 grams of soy protein. In January 2006 an American Heart Association review of a decade-long study of soy protein benefits showed only a minimal decrease in cholesterol levels, but it compared favorably against animal protein sources.

Isoflavones

Soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause hot flashes in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. Thus, soy isoflavone supplements in food or pills is not recommended.

A study done by the Pacific Health Research Institute followed over 3000 Japanese men between 1965 and 1999, which showed a positive correlation between cerebral atrophy and consumption of tofu.

This study by L.R. White, et al., from the National Institute of Aging, NIH, was rejected as not credible by the Food and Drug Administration.

Sweet bean paste

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Sweet bean paste is a food ingredient used in several Asian cuisines. Within Chinese cuisine, it is primarily used as a filling for sweet desserts and Chinese pastry.

Production

The beans are usually boiled without sugar, mashed, and diluted into a slurry. The slurry is then strained through a sieve to remove the bean skins. The resulting sandy liquid is then filtered and squeezed dry using cheesecloth, and then finally sweetened. Oil in the form of either vegetable oil or lard is usually added to the relatively dry paste to improve its texture and mouthfeel.

Oiled sweet bean paste is mainly found as fillings for Chinese pastries, while un-oiled sweet bean pastes can be used to make tong sui. s pastries use primarily un-oiled sweet bean pastes.

Although they are called "sweet beans" by many non English natives in Asia. This is one of the many examples of incorrect English utilized by many people in Asian Countries, especially Japan. As the beans are not actually ''sweet'', but rather, they have been ''sweetened'' with sugar, they are in fact "sweetened beans".

Types

There are several types of sweet bean paste:
*Oil bean paste - made from azuki beans; dark brown or black in colour from the addition of sugar and animal fat or vegetable oil, and further cooking; sometimes also includes Sweet Osmanthus flavor
* - made from mung beans and dull yellow in colour
*Red bean paste - made from azuki beans and dark red in colour
*White bean paste - made from s and greyish off-white in colour
*Black bean potato paste - made from black soybean powder and potatoes; used in Beijing cuisine and other cuisines of northern China

Others

There are a number of other pastes used in Chinese cuisine, primarily as fillings for dessert items. Although not made from beans, they share similar usage and are equally as popular. They are very similar in flavor and texture to sweet bean paste. These include:

*Lotus seed paste
*Black sesame paste

Surimi

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Surimi is a Japanese loan word referring to a food product intended to mimic lobster, crab, and other shellfish meat. It is typically made from white-fleshed fish, , that has been pulverized to a paste and attains a rubbery texture when cooked. The term is also commonly applied to food products made from lean meat in a similar process.

Surimi is a much-enjoyed food product in many Asian cultures and is available in many shapes, forms, and textures. The most common surimi product in the Western market is imitation or s. Such a product is often sold as ''sea legs'' and ''krab'' in America, or ''seafood sticks'', ''crab sticks'' and ''fish sticks'' in the UK, or ''seafood extender'' in Australia.

Production

Lean meat from fish or land animals is first separated or minced. The meat is then rinsed numerous times to eliminate undesirable odors. The result is beaten and pulverized to form a gelatinous paste. Depending on the desired texture and flavour of the ''surimi'' product, the gelatinous paste is mixed with differing proportions of such as starch, egg white, salt, vegetable oil, humectants, sorbitol, sugar, soy protein, and seasonings. If the ''surimi'' is to be packed and frozen, food-grade s also are added while the meat paste is being mixed.

Under most circumstances, surimi is immediately processed, formed and cured into ''surimi'' products at the time it is produced.

Fish ''surimi''

The resulting paste, depending on the type of fish and whether it was rinsed in the production process, is typically tasteless and must be ed. According to the Food Nutrient Database 16-1, fish ''surimi'' contains about 76% water, 15% protein, 6.85% carbohydrate, 0.9% fat, and 0.03% cholesterol.

In North America and Europe, ''surimi'' also alludes to fish-based products manufactured using this process. A generic term for fish-based ''surimi'' in Japanese is "fish-puréed products" .

This is an incomplete list of fish used to make ''surimi'':

*Milkfish
*Swordfish
*Tilapia
**
**
*Big-head pennah croaker
*Golden threadfin bream
*Cod
*Bigeyes
*Pacific whiting
*Alaska pollock
*Various shark species

Meat ''surimi''

Although less commonly seen in Japanese and Western markets, pork ''surimi'' is a common product found in a wide array of Chinese foods. The process of making pork ''surimi'' is similar to making fish surimi except that leaner cuts of meat are used and the rinsing process is omitted. Pork ''surimi'' is made into pork balls which, when cooked, have a texture similar to fish balls but are much firmer and denser. Pork ''surimi'' is also mixed with flour and water to make a type of dumpling wrapper called "yèn pí" that has the similar firm and bouncy texture of cooked ''surimi''.

Beef ''surimi'' can also be shaped into ball form to make "beef balls" . When beef ''surimi'' is mixed with chopped beef tendons and formed into balls, "beef tendon balls" are produced. Both of these products are commonly used in Chinese hot pot as well as served in "''ph?''".

The ''surimi'' process is also used in the making of products. It is employed in making products such as turkey burgers, turkey sausage, turkey pastrami, turkey , turkey loafs and turkey salami.

Uses and products

''Surimi'' is a useful ingredient for producing various kinds of processed foods. Furthermore, it allows a manufacturer to imitate the texture and taste of a more expensive product such as lobster tail using a relatively low-cost material. ''Surimi'' is also an inexpensive source of protein.

In Asian cultures, ''surimi'' is eaten as a food product in its own right and is seldom used to imitate other foods. In Japan fish cakes and fish sausages, as well as other extruded fish products are commonly sold as cured ''surimi''. In Chinese cuisine, fish ''surimi'', often called "fish paste," is used directly as stuffing or made into s. In addition, balls made from lean beef and pork ''surimi'' are often seen in Chinese cuisine. Fried, steamed, and boiled ''surimi'' products are also commonly found in cuisine.

In the West, ''surimi'' products are usually imitation seafood products, such as crab, abalone, shrimp and scallop. However, several companies do produce ''surimi'' sausages, , s, and s. Some examples include: Salmolux salmon burgers, Seapack surimi ham, SeaPack ''surimi'' salami, and Seapack ''surimi'' rolls. A patent was issued for the process of making even higher quality proteins from fish such as in the making of imitation steak from ''surimi''. Surimi is also used to manufacture kosher imitation shrimp and crabmeat, using only kosher fish such as pollock.

List of ''surimi'' foods

* Chikuwa
* Crab stick
* Fish ball
* Hanpen
* Kamaboko
* Tsukune
*
* Yong tau foo

History

The process for making ''surimi'' was developed in many areas of East Asia over 900 years ago. In Japan, it is used in the making of ''kamaboko'', or cured ''surimi'' products. The industrialized ''surimi''-making process was developed in 1960 by Nishitani Yōsuke of Japan's Hokkaidō Fisheries Experiment Institute to process the increased catch of fish, to revitalize Japan's fish industry, and to make use of what previously was considered "fodder fish".

Chemistry of ''surimi'' curing

The of the fish paste is caused by the polymerization of myosin when heated. The species of fish is the most important factor that affects this curing process. Many pelagic fish with higher fat contents lack that kind of heat-curing myosin, hence they are not suitable for making ''surimi''.

Certain kinds of fish, such as the Pacific , cannot form firm ''surimi''. The ''surimi'' maker has to add egg white or potato starch into the fish paste to increase its strength. Before the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy , it was industrial practice to add bovine blood plasma into the fish paste to help its curing or gel-forming. Today some manufacturers may use a transglutaminase to improve its texture.

Star anise

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Star anise, star aniseed, badiane or Chinese star anise, is a spice that closely resembles anise in flavor, obtained from the star-shaped of ''Illicium verum'', a small native evergreen tree of southwest China. The star shaped fruits are harvested just before ripening. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, in Indian cuisine where it is a major component of garam masala, and in Malay/Indonesian cuisine. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also one of the ingredients used to make the broth for the noodle soup called ''ph?''.
It is used as a spice in preparation of Biryani in Andhra Pradesh, a south Indian State.

Usages

Culinary uses

Star anise contains anethole, the same ingredient which gives the unrelated anise its flavor. Recently, star anise has come into use in the as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liquor . It is also used in the production of Sambuca, pastis, and many types of absinthe.

Medicinal uses

Star anise has been used in a tea as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and the seeds are sometimes chewed after meals to aid digestion.

Shikimic acid, a primary feedstock used to create the anti-flu drug Tamiflu, is produced by most autotrophic organisms, but star anise is the industrial source. In 2005, there was a temporary shortage of star anise due to its use in making Tamiflu. Late in that year, a way was found of making shikimic acid artificially. A drug company named now derives some of the raw material it needs from fermenting '''' bacteria. There is no longer any shortage of star anise and it is readily available and is relatively cheap.

Star anise is grown in four provinces in China and harvested between March and May. The shikimic acid is extracted from the seeds in a ten-stage manufacturing process which takes a year. Reports say 90% of the harvest is already used by the Swiss pharmaceutical manufacturer in making Tamiflu, but other reports say there is an abundance of the spice in the main regions - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan.

Japanese star anise , a similar tree, is not edible because it is highly toxic; instead, it has been burned as incense in Japan. Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea may be a result of using this species. Japanese star anise contains anisatin, which causes severe inflammation of the kidneys, urinary tract and digestive organs.

Identification

* Refer to the 4th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia .

Differentiation with other species

Joshi ''et al.'' have tried the techniques of fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography to distinguished the species, while Lederer ''et al.'' employed the state of the art which combines the technology of TLC with HPLC-MS/MS.

= Bibliography

*
*

Snow pea

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The snow pea is a legume, more specifically a variety of pea eaten whole in its pod while still unripe.
It is one of the earliest-known cultivated plants, with evidence of having been cultivated in a region that is now along the Thailand-Burma border, 12,000 years ago.

It is speculated that the name comes from the whitish tint reflected from the pods.

As with all legumes, snow peas host beneficial bacteria, rhizobia, that fixes nitrogen in the soil -- this is called a mutualistic relationship -- and are therefore a useful companion plant, especially useful to grow intercropped with green, leafy vegetables that benefit from high nitrogen content in their soil.

The green shoots can also be cut and served as a vegetable as is done in Chinese cooking. Especially stir-fried with garlic or shellfish such as crab.

Siraitia grosvenorii

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Siraitia grosvenorii is an herbaceous vine native to southern People's Republic of China and Northern Thailand and best known for its fruit, the luo han guo . It is one of four species in the genus Siraitia. Botanical synonyms include ''Momordica grosvenorii'' and ''Thladiantha grosvenorii''. The fruit is one of several that have been called longevity fruit.

The other species of the genus ''Siraitia'' are: ''S. siamensis'' from Thailand, ''S. sikkimensis'' and ''S. silomaradjae'' from India, and ''S. taiwaniana'' from the Republic of China .

The vine grows to 3 to 5 m long, climbing over other plants by means of tendrils which twine round anything they touch. The narrow, heart-shaped are 10–20 cm long. The fruit is globose, 5–7 cm in diameter, and contains a sweet, fleshy, edible pulp and numerous seeds.

The fruit extract is nearly 300 times than sugar and has been used as a natural sweetener in China for nearly a millennium due to its flavor and lack of food energy, only 2.3 /g . It has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine.

Cultivation

It is grown primarily in the province of Guangxi , as well as in Guangdong, Guizhou, Hunan, and Jiangxi. These mountains lend the plants shadows and often are surrounded by mists; because of this the plants are protected from the sun. Nonetheless, the climate in this southern province is warm. The plant is rarely found in the wild and has hence been cultivated for hundreds of years.

Records as early as 1813 mention the cultivation of this plant in the Guangxi province. At present, the Guilin mountains harbor a plantation of 16 square kilometers with a yearly output of about 10,000 fruits. Most of the plantations are located in Yongfu County and Lingui County, which in China are renowned for the extraordinary number of centenarians. This is usually attributed to the consumption of this fruit and the unspoiled nature. The inhabitants themselves, however, are of the opinion that the reason lies in their calm lifestyle and simple nutrition.

town in Yongfu County has acquired the name "home of the Chinese ''luohanguo'' fruit"; a number of companies specialised in making ''luohanguo'' extracts and finished products have been set up in the area. The Yongfu Pharmaceutical Factory is the oldest of these.

Traditional uses

The plant is most prized for its sweet fruits, which are used for medicinal purposes, and as a sweetener. The fruits are generally sold in dried form, and traditionally used in herbal tea or soup. They are used for respiratory ailments, sore throats and reputed to aid longevity.

The best way to describe the medicinal use of luohan guo in southern China during the 20th century can be found in the book written by Dai and Liu. It was written in Chinese in 1982 and translated into English in 1986. Here is their description:

:The dried fruit may be bought in a market. The surface of the fruit is round and smooth, it has a yellow-brownish or green-brownish colour, and is covered by fine hairs. The fruit has a hard but thin shell. Inside, one finds a partially dried, soft substance which contains the juice and a large quantity of seeds. All components are very sweet. Their nature is cool and not toxic. The fruit can act as a remedy for sun stroke, wet the lungs, remove phlegm, stop cough and aid defecation.

;Heat stroke and thirst: Take a fruit, break it open and pour hot water on it to make an infusion. Drink the infusion in place of tea.
;Acute or chronic infection of the larynx : Take the halves of a fruit and 3 to 5 sterculia seeds, cover this with water and leave it to boil. Swallow very slowly.
;Chronic cough: Take a piece of the fruit, cover it with water and leave it to boil. Drink the resulting liquid twice daily.
;Constipation due to old age: Take two fruits and, using only the soft parts and seeds, divide it into pieces. Cover these pieces with water, boil it, and drink the liquid before going to bed.
;Diabetes: Take an appropriate amount of fruit squash or boil it so as to get concentrated juice. Use this as a substitute for sugar in your nutrition..

Active agents

The sweet taste of ''luohan guo'' comes mainly from the ''mogrosides'', a group of Triterpene-Glycosides that make up approximately 1% of the flesh of the fresh fruit. Through , a powder containing 80% mogrosides can be obtained.

Five different mogrosides are known and they are known by names with the numbers 1 to 5. The main mogroside in this plant is mogroside-5, that was previously known as ''esgoside''.

Other similar agents in ''luohan guo'' are Siamenoside and Neomogroside.

The pure mogroside mix present results in a sweetness that is 300 times sweeter than sugar. The 80% mix is approximately 250 times sweeter. Pure mogroside-5 and -5 can be up to 400 times as sweet.

Toxicity

There are no reported incidents of negative side effects of ''luohan guo'' that are known. It is classed by the American Food and Drug Administration as a GRAS product. There are no restrictions on consuming the fruit or its extracts.

Current research

Recent research on ''luohan guo'' suggests that the mogroside works as an antioxidant and that it helps to prevent cancer.

The use of ''luohan guo'' as a remedy for diabetes and overweight has been mentioned, as it can be used as a substitute for sugar.

''Luohan guo'' has been shown to be useful against the Epstein-Barr virus.

The plant also contains a glycoprotein called momorgrosvin, which has been shown to inhibit ribosomal protein synthesis

Cultivation and marketing

Traditional processing

''Luohan guo'' is harvested in the form of a round green fruit, which becomes brown on drying. It is rarely used in its fresh form, as it is hard to store. Furthermore, it develops a rotten taste on fermentation, which adds to the unwanted flavours already present.

Thus the fruits are usually dried before further use and are sold in precisely this fashion in shops. The fruits are slowly dried in ovens, which preserves it and removes most of the unwanted aromas. However, this technique also leads to the formation of several bitter and astringent aromas. This limits the use of the dried fruits and extracts to the preparation of diluted tea, soup, and as a sweetener for products that would usually have sugar or honey added to them.

The Procter & Gamble process

The process for the manufacture of a useful sweetener from ''luohan guo'' was patented in 1995 by Procter & Gamble. The patent states that, while ''luohan guo'' is very sweet, it has too many interfering aromas, which render it useless for general application. Thus the company developed a process for the removal of the interfering aromas.

In this process, the fresh fruit is harvested before it is fully mature, and is then matured in storage so that it may be processed precisely when it is mature. The shell and seeds are then removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree. This is then used in the further production of food. Solvents are used, amongst other things, to remove the interfering aromas.

Products

There are a number of commercially prepared ''luohan guo'' products:

One of the most famous ones is powdered instant ''luohan guo'', which is also sold by the Yongfu company. It is sold in China, Hong Kong and in Chinese shops in the West.

In addition, there are a number of other products which contain ''luohan guo'' either on its own or in a mix with other herbs. For example it is used with Ginkgo against cough, with chrysanthemum against heatstroke and headache or with asparagus, ''Oldenlandia'', ''Scutellaria'', and pearl powder to .

History

During the Tang dynasty, Guilin was one of the most important Buddhist retreats containing many temples. The fruit was named after the arhats , a group of Buddhist monks who, due to their proper way of life and meditation, achieved and were said to have been redeemed. According to Chinese history, the fruit was first mentioned in the records of the 13th century monks who used it.

However, plantation space was limited: it existed mainly in the slopes of the Guangxi and Guangdong mountains, and to a lesser degree in Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangxi, and Hainan. This and the difficulty of cultivation meant that the fruit did not become part of the Chinese herbal tradition, which depended on more readily available products. This is also the reason why one finds no mention of it in the traditional guides to herbs.

Rediscovery in the 20th century

The herb became better known in the 20th century. The first report on the herb in English was found in an unpublished manuscript written in 1938 by Professor G. W. Groff and Hoh Hin Cheung. The report stated that the fruits were often used as the main ingredients of "cooling drinks," that is, as remedies for hot weather, fever, or other dysfunctions traditionally associated with warmth or heat.

It was known that the juice of the fruits was very sweet.

Groff and Hoh realised that the fruit was an important Chinese domestic remedy for the treatment of cold and pneumonia when consumed with pork.

Interviews have confirmed that the fruit only recently gained importance in Chinese history. Nonetheless, it appears that a small group of people had mastered its cultivation a long time ago and had accumulated extensive knowledge on growth, pollination, and climatic requirements of the plant.

The fruit came to the United States in the early 20th century. Groff mentions that during a visit to the American ministry of agriculture in 1917, the botanic Frederick Coville showed him a ''luohanguo'' fruit bought in a Chinese shop in Washington. Seeds of the fruit which had been bought in Chinese shop in San Francisco were entered into the universal botanic description of the species in 1941.

The first research into the sweet component of ''luohanguo'' is attributed to C. H. Lee, who wrote an English report on it in 1975, and also to Tsunematsu Takemoto, who worked on it the early 1980s in Japan .

The development of ''luohanguo'' products in China has continued ever since, focusing in particular on the development of concentrated extracts.

Sichuan pepper

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Sichuan pepper is the outer pod of the tiny fruit of a number of species in the genus ''Zanthoxylum'' , widely grown and consumed in Asia as a spice. Despite the name, it is not related to black pepper or to chili peppers. It is widely used in the cuisine of Sichuan, China, from which it takes its name, as well as Tibetan, Bhutanese, Nepalese, and and Batak Toba cuisines, among others.

It is known in as ''huājiāo'' ; a lesser-used name is ''shānjiāo'' . In , it is ''sanshō'', using the same Chinese characters as ''shanjiao''. In , it is known as ''g.yer ma''. In it is known as ''tepal'' or ''tirphal'' . In Indonesia's North Sumatra province, around Lake Toba, it is known as ''andaliman'' in the Batak Toba language and ''tuba'' in the Batak Karo language. In America, it is sold as fagara or flower pepper as well as Sichuan pepper.

In Nepali it is known as ????? and is widely used in nepalese cuisine.

Culinary uses

Sichuan pepper has a unique aroma and flavour that is not hot or pungent like black or white pepper, or chili peppers, but has slight lemony overtones and creates in the mouth a kind of tingly numbness that sets the stage for these hot spices. Recipes often suggest lightly toasting and then crushing the tiny seedpods before adding them to food. Only the husks are used; the seeds are discarded or ignored. It is generally added at the last moment. Star anise and ginger are often used with it and it figures prominently in spicy Sichuan cuisine. It has an alkaline pH and a numbing effect on the lips when eaten in larger doses. '''' , a flavor common in Sichuan cooking, is a combination of Sichuan pepper and chili pepper.

It is also available as an oil . In this form it is best used in stir fry noodle dishes without hot spices. The preferred recipe includes ginger oil and brown sugar to be cooked with a base of noodles and vegetables, with rice vinegar and Sichuan pepper oil to be added after cooking.

''Hua jiao yan'' is a mixture of salt and Sichuan pepper, roasted and browned in a wok and served as a condiment to accompany chicken, duck and pork dishes. The peppercorns can also be lightly fried in order to make a spicy oil with various uses.
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In Indonesian Batak cuisine, it is ground into a green ''sambal Tinombur'' or chili paste, by mixing with chilis and seasonings to accompany grilled pork, carp and other regional specialities.

Sichuan pepper is one of the few spices important for Tibetan and Bhutanese cookery of the Himalayas, because few spices can be grown there. One Himalayan specialty is the , a dumpling stuffed with vegetables, cottage cheese or minced yak meat, beef or pork and flavoured with Sichuan pepper, garlic, ginger and onion. The noodles are steamed and served dry, together with a fiery sauce. It is believed that it can sanitize meat that may not be so fresh. In reality it may only serve to mask foul flavors. The foul smell masking property of Sichuan pepper made it popular in dishes made of visceral organs of slaughtered animals.

In Japan the dried and powdered leaves of ''Zanthoxylum sancho'' are used to make noodle dishes and soups mildly hot and fragrant. The whole leaves, 木の芽 ''kinome'', are used to flavour vegetables, especially bamboo shoots, and to decorate soups. Typically the young shoots are used in this way giving and aromatic lemony flavour to food. They are used to denote spring seasonality in food. The buds, seeds, flowers, and hulls are also used.

Sichuan peppercorns are one of the traditional ingredients in the spice mixture five-spice powder and also , a Japanese seven-flavour seasoning.

In , two species are used: ''Z. piperitum'' and ''Z. schinifolium''.

Composition of various species

*''Z. fagara'' — alkaloids, coumarins
*''Z. simulans'' — Mostly , limonene, ,
*''Z. armatum'' — linalool , limonene, methyl cinnamate, cineole
*''Z. rhetsa'' — Sabinene, limonene, pinenes, , terpinenes, 4-terpineol, alpha-terpineol.
*''Z. piperitum'' — citronellal, citronellol,
*''Z. acanthopodium''

The genus name ''Zanthoxylum'' or ''Xanthoxylum'' comes from the ''xanthon xylon'' , meaning "blond wood."

Importation ban

From 1968 to 2005, the United States Food and Drug Administration banned the importation of Sichuan peppercorns because they were found to be capable of carrying citrus canker . This bacterial disease, which is very difficult to control, could potentially harm the foliage and fruit of citrus crops in the U.S. It was never an issue of harm in human consumption. The import ban was only loosely enforced until 2002 . In 2005, the and FDA lifted the ban, provided the peppercorns are heated to around 70 degrees Celsius to kill the canker bacteria before importation.

Other names

It is possible to come across names such as "Szechwan pepper," "Chinese pepper," "Japanese pepper," "aniseed pepper," "Sprice pepper," "Chinese prickly-ash," "Fagara," "sansho," "Nepal pepper," "Indonesian lemon pepper," and others, sometimes referring to specific species within this group, since this plant is not well known enough in the West to have an established name. In Tibet, the spice is known as ''e-ma'' or ''Kham pepper''. At least some of the brands found in in the United States label the product in a confusing way; for instance, the Oriental Mascot brand labels the spice as "red pepper corn," although the Chinese characters on the package indicate it is Sichuan pepper. Some brands also use the English description "Dehydrated Prickly Ash" since Sichuan pepper, and Japanese sansho, are from related plants that are sometimes called prickly ash because of their thorns.

Sichuan pepper is unrelated to black pepper and to chile peppers, which are also widely used in Sichuan cookery.

In Nepal, where it is extensively used, it is known as ''timur'' .

A spice called ''teppal'' or ''tirphal'' is used in the Indian states of Maharashtra, , and Goa, by a very small community called s , an official language of Goa and spoken in many parts of these three states. ''Teppal'' is a fruit which grows in bunches like grapes on trees full of thorns. The fresh fruits are parrot green in color and are used as a flavouring agent in many curries made with a paste of coconut, chilis, and other spices. The fruit is seasonal and available during the monsoon period. When dried, the flesh of the fruit hardens, turns a brownish black color and opens up to show the black seeds within. The seeds are discarded and the dried fruit is stored in containers for use around the year. Mostly used in fish preparations and a few vegetarian dishes, with the coconut masala, this spice has a very strong woody aroma and is discarded at the time of eating the curry. This tree is also called ''jummn kayee'' or ''gamathe haralu'' in and ''koili kaya'' in Malayalam.

Sesame oil

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Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in and Southeast Asian cuisine.

Composition

Sesame oil is composed of the following fatty acids:

History

Sesame seeds were one of the first crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. In fact, the word ennai that means oil in Tamil has its roots in the Tamil words eL and nei, which mean sesame and fat.

Prior to 600 BC, the Assyrians used sesame oil as a food, salve, and medication, primarily by the rich, as the difficulty of obtaining it made it expensive. Hindus use til oil in votive lamps, and consider the oil sacred. According to Hindu belief, lighting lamp filled with til oil in front of Lord Hanuman removes obstacles and difficulties in life.

Nomenclature

In the Tamil language of India, Sesame Oil is called "Nalla Ennai", which literal translation in English is "good oil". In the Telugu language of India, Sesame Oil is called "''Nuvvula Noone''" or "''Manchi Noone''" . In the Kannada language of India, Sesame Oil is called "yellenne" . It is also called as Gingelly Oil in India.

Manufacture of sesame oil

Manufacturing process

The extraction of sesame oil from the sesame seed is not a completely automated process. In the fairy tale “” the sesame fruit serves as a symbol for wealth. When the fruit capsule opens, it releases a real treasure - the sesame seeds. However, a great deal of manual work is necessary before this point is reached. That is why sesame is hardly ever cultivated in Western industrialised agricultural areas.

The sesame seeds are protected by a capsule, which does not burst open until the seeds are completely ripe. The ripening time tends to vary. For this reason, the farmers cut plants by hand and place them together in upright position to carry on ripening for a few days. The seeds are only shaken out onto a cloth after all the capsules have opened.

The discovery of an indehiscent mutant by Langham in 1943 began the work towards development of a high yielding, shatter-resistant variety. Although researchers have made significant progress in sesame breeding, harvest losses due to shattering continue to limit domestic US production.

Sesame seed market

As of 2007, sesame is being imported into the US at a price of US$0.43/lb. This relatively high price reflects a world-wide shortage. Though the market for sesame seed is strong, domestic US production awaits the development of high-yielding nonshattering varieties. It is advisable to establish a market before planting.

Varieties

There are many variations in the colour of sesame oil: cold-pressed sesame oil is almost colourless, while Indian sesame oil is golden and Chinese sesame oil is commonly a dark brown colour.

East Asian sesame oil derives its dark colour and flavour from toasted hulled sesame seeds. Cold pressed sesame oil has less flavour than the toasted oil, since it is produced directly from raw, rather than toasted seeds.

Sesame oil is traded in any of the forms described above: Cold-pressed sesame oil is available in Western health shops. In most Asian countries, different kinds of hot-pressed sesame oil are preferred.

Uses

Cooking

Sesame oil carries a premium relative to other cooking oils and is considered more stable than most vegetable oils due to antioxidants in the oil. Sesame oil is least prone, among cooking oils, to turn rancid. This is because it has a very high boiling point. In effect, sesame oil retains its natural structure and does not break down even when heated to a very high temperature.

Sesame oil is most popular in Asia, including the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive oil in the Mediterranean.

Body massage

Sesame oil is reputed to penetrate the skin easily, and is used in India for oil massage.

Hair treatment

Applying sesame oil to the hair is said to result in darker hair. It may be used for hair and scalp massage.
It is believed to reduce the heat of the body and thus helps in preventing hair loss

Food manufacture

Sesame oil is used in the manufacture of pickles.
Refined sesame oil is used to make margarine in Western countries.

Drug manufacture

Sesame oil is used in the manufacture of Ayurvedic drugs.

Worship

Sesame or Til oil is used in brass or silver lamps kept in front of gods and goddess of Hindus. Sesame oil is used for performing puja in Hindu temples.

Industrial uses

In industry, sesame oil may be used as:

* a solvent in injected drugs or intravenous drip solutions,

* a cosmetics carrier oil,

* coating stored grains to prevent weevil attacks. The oil also has synergy with some insecticides.

Alternative medicine

Vitamins and Minerals

Sesame oil is a source of vitamin E. Vitamin E is an anti-oxidant and has been correlated with lowering cholesterol levels. As with most plant based condiments, sesame oil contains magnesium, copper, calcium, iron, zinc and vitamin B6. Copper provides relief for rheumatoid arthritis. Magnesium supports vascular and respiratory health. Calcium helps prevent colon cancer, osteoporosis, migraine and PMS. Zinc promotes bone health.

Besides being rich in Vitamin E, there is insufficient research on the medicinal properties of sesame oil. However, the following claims have been made.

Blood pressure

Sesame oil has a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

It is suggested that due to the presence of high levels of Polyunsaturated fatty acids in sesame oil, it may help to control blood pressure. It could be used in cooking in place of other edible oils and to help reduce high blood pressure and lower the amount of medication needed to control hypertension.

Sesame oil is unique in that it has one of the highest concentrations of omega-6 fatty acids. At the same time, the oil contains two natural-occurring preservatives, sesamol and sesamin. Therefore, sesame oil is the only oil which has a high percentage of polyunsaturates and also keeps at room temperature.

The effect of the oil on blood pressure may be due to polyunsaturated fatty acids , and the compound sesamin – a lignan present in sesame oil. There is evidence suggesting that both compounds reduce blood pressure in hypertensive rats. Sesame lignans also inhibit the synthesis and absorption of cholesterol in these rats.

Oil pulling

Sesame oil is one of the few oils recommended for use in oil pulling. .

Stress and tension

Various constituents present in the sesame oil have anti-oxidant and anti-depressant properties. Therefore proponents encourage its use to help fight senile changes and bring about a sense of well-being.

Adherents for its therapeutic use reports claims of feeling better than when not using it.

General claims

While not approved by the Food and Drug Administration , sesame oil is reputed to have a number of therapeutic uses.

As with cure-all claims of other folk and therapeutic medicines, it is suggested that regular topical application and/or consumption of sesame oil should mitigate effects of anxiety, nerve and bone disorders, poor circulation, lowered immunity and bowel problems. It is suggested such use would also relieve lethargy, fatigue and insomnia, while promoting strength and vitality, enhancing blood circulation. There are claims that its use has relaxing properties which eases pain and muscle spasm, such as sciatica, dysmenorrhoea, colic, backache and joint pain. There are claims similar to other therapeutic medicines, that its having antioxidants explains beliefs that it slows the aging process and promotes longevity.

It is suggested that sesame oil, when consumed and/or topically applied, should relieve dryness both externally and internally. Sesame oil is sometimes recommended to alleviate the dryness associated with . It is believed that its use "restores moisture to the skin, keeping it soft, flexible and young looking". It is suggested that it relieves "dryness of joints" and bowels, and eases symptoms of dryness such as irritating coughs, cracking joints and hard stools. Since "dryness of joints" is not a medically classifiable condition, it would be difficult to medically comprehend or verify these claims of panacea.

Other uses include as a laxative, as a remedy for toothaches and gum disease and in the treatment of blurred vision, dizziness, and headaches.

It is suggested that sesame oil could be used in the treatment of dry nose, reduction of cholestrol levels , anti-bacterial effects, and even slowing down certain types of cancer.

Adverse effects

Sesame oil is not known to be harmful when taken in recommended dosages, though the long-term effects of taking sesame-derived remedies have not been investigated. Due to lack of sufficient medical study, sesame oil should be used with caution in children, women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and people with liver or kidney disease.

Because of its laxative effects, sesame oil should not be used by people who have diarrhea.

No more than 10% of a person's total caloric intake should be derived from polyunsaturated fats such as those found in sesame oil, according to the American Heart Association.

Oil massage should be avoided immediately after administering enemas, emetics or purgatives, during the first stages of fever or if suffering from indigestion.

People who are allergic to Peanuts are likely to be more susceptible to Sesame allergy. Allergy to Peanuts is one of the most common allergies, and can lead to anaphylactic shock which can be fatal. Persons allergic to Sesame seeds should be cautious about using Sesame oil.

Sea cucumber

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The sea cucumber is an echinoderm of the Holothuroidea, with an elongated body and leathery skin, which is found on the sea floor worldwide. It is so named because of its cucumber-like shape. The body contains a single, branched gonad.
Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcified structures that are usually reduced to isolated microscopic ossicles joined by connective tissue. These can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species , the skeleton is often absent.

Overview

Sea cucumbers are generally scavengers, feeding on debris in the benthic zone of the ocean. Exceptions include cucumbers and the species ''Rynkatropa pawsoni'', which has a commensal relationship with deep-sea anglerfish. The of most cucumbers consists of plankton and decaying organic matter found in the sea. Some sea cucumbers position themselves in and catch food that flows by with their open tentacles. They also sift through the bottom sediments using their tentacles.

Some species of coral-reef sea cucumbers within the order Aspidochirotida can defend themselves by expelling their sticky cuvierian tubules to entangle potential predators. When startled, these cucumbers may expel some of them through a tear in the wall of the cloaca in an process known as . Replacement tubules grow back in one-and-a-half to five weeks, depending on the species.

They can be found in great numbers on the deep sea floor, where they often make up the majority of the animal biomass. At depths deeper than 5.5 mi , sea cucumbers comprise 90% of the total mass of the macrofauna. The body of deep water holothurians is made of a tough gelatinous tissue with unique properties that makes the animals able to control their own buoyancy, making it possible for them to either live on the ocean floor or to float over it to move to new locations with a minimum of energy.

In more shallow waters, sea cucumbers can form dense populations. The strawberry sea cucumber of New Zealand lives on rocky walls around the southern coast of the South Island where populations sometimes reach densities of 1,000 animals per square metre. For this reason, one such area in Fiordland is simply called the strawberry fields.

Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of 'respiratory trees' that branch off the cloaca just inside the anus, so that they 'breathe' by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it. A variety of fish, most commonly pearl fish, have evolved a symbiotic relationship with sea cucumbers in which the pearl fish will live in sea cucumber's cloaca using it for protection from predation, a source of food , and to develop into their adult stage of life. Many polychaete worms and crabs have also specialized to use the cloacal respiratory trees for protection by living inside the sea cucumber.

Ten percent of the blood cell pigment of the sea cucumber is vanadium. Just as the horseshoe crab has blue blood rather than because of copper in the hemocyanin pigment, the blood of the sea cucumber is yellow because of the vanadium in the pigment. Nonetheless, there is no evidence that vanabins carry oxygen, in contrast to hemoglobin and hemocyanin.

Sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes.

The largest species is ''Holothuria floridana'', which abounds just below low-water mark on the Florida reefs.

The most common way to separate the subclasses is by looking at their oral tentacles. Subclass Dendrochirotacea has 8-30 oral tentacles, subclass Aspidochirotacea has 10-30 leaflike or shieldlike oral tentacles, while subclass Apodacea may have up to 25 simple or pinnate oral tentacles and is also characterized by reduced or absent tube feet, as in the order Apodida.

Sea cucumbers as food and medicine

"To supply the markets of Southern China, trepangers traded with the Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Land. This Macassan contact with Australia is the first recorded example of trade between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours."

Some varieties of sea cucumber are said to have excellent healing properties. There are pharmaceutical companies being built based on this gamat product. Extracts are prepared and made into oil, cream or cosmetics. Some products are intended to be taken internally. The effectiveness of sea cucumber extract in tissue repair has been the subject of serious study. It is believed that the sea cucumber contains all the fatty acids necessary to play an active role in tissue repair..

Sea cucumbers are believed to be endowed with aphrodisiac powers in the Far East. The reason for this belief is the peculiar reaction of the creature on being kneaded or disturbed slightly with fingers. It swells and stiffens and a jet of water is released from one end. This behaviour is similar to the erection and subsequent ejaculation of the male human penis. After releasing the jet, which is a defensive mechanism and contains irritants, the creature loses its stiffness and reverts to its original state.

On December 21, 2007, a study published in PLoS Pathogens found that a lectin from '''' impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic ..

Commercial Harvest

In recent years the sea cucumber industry in Alaska has gained strength due to increased export of the skins and muscles to China.

In China, many commercial sea cucumbers are farmed in artificial ponds. These ponds can be as large as 1,000 acres, and satisfy much of the local demand. Wild sea cucumbers are caught by divers and these wild Alaskan sea cucumbers have higher nutritional value and are larger than farmed Chinese sea cucumbers. Larger size and higher nutritional value has allowed the Alaskan fisheries to continue to compete for market shares, despite the increase in local, Chinese sea cucumber farming.

Sea cucumbers in art and literature

Sea cucumbers have inspired musical composition: in the first of his ''Embryons desséchés'' for piano solo, Erik Satie presents the " of a Holothurian" and inserts a description of the animal in the score:

:The Holothurian crawls across boulders and rocky surfaces.
:This sea-animal purrs like a cat; also, it produces disgusting silky threads.
:Light appears to have an incommodating effect on it.

Nonetheless it is the sea cucumber's closest relative that gets the most attention from scientists, both as an embryo and as a fossil.

Sea cucumbers have also inspired thousands of haiku in Japan, where they are called ''namako'' , written with characters that can be translated "sea mice". In English translations of these haiku, they are usually called "sea slugs"; according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "sea slug" originally referred to holothurians , though biologists now use the name only for the nudibranch molluscs, marine relatives of land slugs. Almost 1,000 Japanese holothurian haiku translated into English appear in the book ''Rise, Ye Sea Slugs!'' by Robin D. Gill .

Sea Cumbers in Captivity

Sea cucumbers are very common in marine reef aquaria, particularly in reef tanks, where they are prized for their unusual appearance and behavior. Care of sea cucumbers is not complex, but these unusual creatures have unusual requirements. In the hobby, the term sea cucumber refers to only the detrivore sea cucumbers, that is, those that subsist by consuming the detritus that accumulates on the substrate .

In particular, these creatures have the remarkable ability to live for months, often up to half a year, without feeding. It is very common for these creatures to be introduced into a system that can't support them, and for the owners to have no idea that they are slowly starving to death. When this happens, the sea cucumber will slowly shrink as it digests its own body mass to survive.

In order to be sure a cucumber is feeding one must watch it at work. It will use the feeding tentacles around its mouth to pick up and swallow sand from the bottom of the aquarium. Particles too big will be of no use to the cucumber, so it is important to watch it to make sure it's feeding, and that it's regularly producing castings of excreted substrate.

In addition to the unusual feeding requirements of sea cucumbers, they release highly toxic compounds when injured. In particular, the filter feeding sea cucumbers, known as "Sea Apples" in the aquarium trade, are exceedingly lethal to the other tank inhabitants should they be injured. All powerheads and pumps should be covered as the cucumbers can squeeze into spaces much smaller than their body. Should a sea apple become injured it must be immediately removed from the aquarium, a major water change needs to be performed, and fresh activated carbon will need to be added if there is to be any hope of saving the other inhabitants.

Salted duck egg

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Salted duck egg is a preserved food product made by soaking duck s in brine, or packing each egg in damp salted charcoal. In Asian supermarkets, these eggs are sometimes sold covered in a thick layer of salted charcoal paste. The eggs may also be sold with the salted paste removed, wrapped in plastic, and vacuum packed. From the salt curing process, the salted duck eggs have a briny aroma, a very liquid egg white and a yolk that is bright orange-red in colour, round, and firm in texture.

Salted duck eggs are normally boiled or steamed before being peeled and eaten as a condiment to congee or cooked with other foods as a flavouring. The egg white has a sharp, salty taste. The orange red yolk is rich, fatty, and less salty. The yolk is prized and is used in mooncakes to symbolize the moon.

Despite its name, salted duck eggs can also be made from chicken eggs though the taste and texture will be somewhat different, and the egg yolk will be less rich.

Salted eggs are also popular in the Philippines. Salted eggs sold in the Philippines undergo a process of curing similar to that described above, with some variation in ingredients used. It is sold over the counter pre-cooked and ready to eat. The commercial salted eggs are duck eggs, and are dyed entirely red to make them look more distinctive, as they are also packaged, transported, and displayed in egg trays similar to those used for fresh eggs.

Production

''Pateros'' method

A popular method for processing salted eggs in the Philippines is the '''' method. The salted egg is prepared ''Pateros style'' by mixing clay , table salt and water in the ratio of 1:1:2 until the texture of the admixture becomes smooth and forms to a thick texture similar to cake batter. The fresh eggs are individually dipped in the admixture, and packed in 150-egg batches in newspaper-lined 10x12x18 inch wooden boxes . The whole batch is then lightly wrapped in newspapers to slow down the dehydration process.

The eggs are then stored indoors at room temperature over the next 12 to 14 days to cure. This way the salt works its way into the eggs uniformly in the batch. Curing can last up to 18 days, but that results in very long-lasting red eggs that can have a 40-day shelf life, which is largely unnecessary, as the eggs are stocked and replenished biweekly.

After the two-week curing period, the eggs are hand-cleaned with water and a brush and prepared to be boiled in low heat for 30 minutes. Time is measured from the first moment the water boils and the immersion of the eggs. The 50-egg batch is then wrapped in fish nets for ease of removal from the cookware. The cookware must be large enough to accommodate the batch with a two-inch covering of water.

Chicken eggs may be processed the same way, although, up to 10% of the batch can break during the process.

Cholesterol Content

According to the Health Promotion Board of Singapore, one salted duck egg yolk weighing about 70g contains 359mg of cholesterol. The recommended cholesterol intake for a healthy diet should be less than 300mg a day. A single salted egg yolk exceeds the recommended cholesterol intake and if taken regularly, there may be a greater risk of elevating blood cholesterol level. This, in turn, may increase the risk of heart disease.

Rock candy

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Rock candy is a type of confectionery composed of relatively large sugar crystals.
Homemade rock candy is commonly formed by allowing a solution of sugar and water to crystallize onto a string or some other surface suitable for crystal nucleation. Heating the water before adding the sugar allows more sugar to dissolve and thus produces larger crystals. Crystals form after several days. Food coloring is often added to the mixture to produce colored candy.

Origins

Candied sugar has its origins in India and Persia. Arabic writers in the first half of the 9th century described the production of candy sugar. Crystals were grown as a result of cooling supersaturated sugar solutions. In order to accelerate crystallization, confectioners later learnt to immerse small twigs in the solution for the crystals to grow on. The sugar solution was colored with cochineal and indigo and scented with ambergris or flower essence.

In cuisine

Rock candy is a different product from British , also called seaside rock, which more closely resembles a candy cane.

Rock candy is used in Chinese cuisine. It is used to sweeten ''tong sui'' and chrysanthemum tea, as well as .

Rock candy is called 'Mishri' in Hindi and is widely used in India with aniseed as a mouth freshener, especially after meals. In telugu, it is known as "patika-bellam". One can find these two being offered along with the check/bill, at most restaurants in India. Rock candy is called 'Kalkandu' in and is commonly used in Tamil Cuisine especially in Jaffna .

Rock candy is also used in Mexico to make sugar skulls on the celebration of the Day of the Dead. Children make the rock candy in the shapes of skulls by special strings and then decorate them with icing and jewels. These are eaten after the festivities.

Red yeast rice

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Red yeast rice , red fermented rice, red kojic rice, red koji rice, or ang-kak, is a bright reddish purple fermented rice, which acquires its colour from being cultivated with the mold ''Monascus purpureus''. In Japan, it is known as ''beni-koji'' or ''akakoji'' and in Taiwan it is sometimes also called ''?ng-chau'' in . Among the Hakka, it is known as fungkiuk. In China it is widely available under the brand name XueZhiKang , and in Singapore it is available as Hypocol.

Red yeast rice is sold in jars at as a wet aggregate, whole dried grains, or as a ground powder. It was a commonly used red in East Asian and Chinese cuisine prior to the discovery of chemical food colouring. It has also been used in .

Production

Red yeast rice is produced by cultivating ''Monascus purpureus'' on polished rice. The rice is first soaked in water until the grains are fully saturated. The raw soaked rice can then either be directly inoculated, or steamed for the purpose of sterilizing and cooking the grains prior to inoculation. Inoculation is done by mixing ''M. purpureus'' spores or powdered red yeast rice together with the processed rice. The mix is then incubated in an environment around room temperature for 3–6 days. During this period of time, the rice should be fully cultured with ''M. purpureus'', with each rice grain turning bright red in its core and reddish purple on the outside.

The fully cultured rice is then either sold as the dried grain, or cooked and pasteurized to be sold as a wet paste, or dried and pulverized to be sold as a fine powder. China is the world's largest producer of red yeast rice.

Due to the high cost of chemical dyes, some producers of red yeast rice have tried to adulterate their products with red dye #2 Sudan Red G .

Uses

Culinary

The dried grain can be prepared and eaten in the same manner as white rice--a common practice among Asians. It can also be added to other foods.

Red yeast rice is used to colour a wide variety of food products, including pickled tofu, red rice vinegar, ''char siu'', Peking Duck, and Chinese pastries that require red food colouring. It is also traditionally used in the production of several types of Chinese wine, Japanese ''sake'' , and , imparting a reddish colour to these wines.

Although used mainly for its colour in cuisine, red yeast rice imparts a subtle but pleasant taste to food.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In addition to its culinary use, red yeast rice is also used in traditional Chinese herbology and traditional Chinese medicine. Its use has been documented as far back as the Tang Dynasty in China in 800 A.D. and taken internally to invigorate the body, aid in digestion, and remove "blood blockages".

Modern Medicine

Red yeast rice when produced using the 'Went' strain of ''Monascus purpureus'' contains significant quantites of the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor lovastatin which is also known as ''mevinolin'', a naturally-occurring statin. It is sold as an over the counter dietary supplement for controlling cholesterol . There is strong scientific evidence for its effect in lowering blood levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein/LDL , and triglyceride levels . Because an approved drug is identical to the molecule it is therefore regulated as a drug by the Food and Drug Administration .

In 1998, the U.S. district court in Utah allowed a product containing red yeast rice extract known as Cholestin to be sold without restriction, but this was reversed on appeal. . Cholestin as a product continues to be marketed but no longer contains red yeast rice . Other companies sell red yeast rice products but most of them use a different strain of yeast or different growing conditions, resulting in RYR with a negligible statin content. The labeling on these new products often says nothing about cholesterol lowering. As late as August 2007, FDA noted supplements being sold containing significant lovastatin levels.

In 2006 Liu et al published a meta-analysis of clinical trials . The article cited 93 published, controlled clinical trials . Total cholesterol decreased by 35 mg/dl, LDL-cholesterol by 28 mg/dl, triglycerides by 35 mg/dl, and HDL-cholesterol increased by 6 mg/dl. Zhao et al reported on a four-year trial in people with diabetes . There was a 40-50% reduction in cardio events and cardio deaths in the treated group. Ye et al reported on a four-year trial in elderly Chinese patients with heart disease . Deaths were down 32%. There is at least one report in the literature of a statin-like myopathy caused by red yeast rice .

An article in the June 15, 2008, issue of the American Journal of Cardiology found that red yeast rice may provide benefits beyond those provided by statins. The researchers reported that the benefits seemed to exceed those reported with lovastatin alone.

ConsumerLab.com found large variation in the active compounds between red yeast rice supplements, and also found that some of them were contaminated with citrinin, a mycotoxin. Evidence about the side effects of red yeast rice is limited, but it may have similar side effects to the drug lovastatin, which include kidney problems and other side effects. Regular medical monitoring is needed to detect such effects.

Red bean paste

2008-09-17T07:28:00.000-07:00

Red bean paste or Azuki bean paste is a sweet, dark red bean paste originating from China. It is used in Chinese cuisine, , and Korean cuisine. It is prepared by boiling and mashing azuki beans and then sweetening the paste with sugar or honey. The husk of the beans may be removed by sieving before sweetening, which leads to a smoother and more homogeneous paste.

Types

Red bean paste is graded according to its consistency.
In Chinese cuisine, the most common types are:
* ''Mashed'': Azuki beans are boiled with sugar and mashed. The paste is smooth with bits of broken beans and bean husk. Depending on the intended texture, the beans can be vigorously or lightly mashed. Some unmashed beans can also be added back into the bean paste for additional texture. This is the most common and popular type of red bean paste eaten in Chinese confections. Can also be eaten on its own or in sweet soups.
* ''Smooth'': Azuki beans are boiled without sugar, mashed, and diluted into a slurry. The slurry is then strained through a sieve to remove the husk, filtered, and squeezed dry using cheesecloth, and then finally sweetened. Oil, either vegetable oil or lard, is usually added to the relatively dry paste to improve its texture and mouth feel. Smooth bean paste is mainly found as fillings for Chinese pastries.

In Japanese cuisine, the most common types are:
* ''Tsubuan'' , whole red beans boiled with sugar but otherwise untreated
* ''Tsubushian'' , where the beans are mashed after boiling
* ''Koshian'' , which has been passed through a sieve to remove bean skins; the most common type
* ''Sarashian'' , which has been dried and reconstituted with water

Etymology

In , a number of names are used to refer to red bean paste; these include , , and . Strictly speaking, the term ''an'' can refer to almost any edible mashed paste, although without qualifiers red beans are assumed. Common alternatives include ''shiroan'' , made from white kidney beans, and ''kurian'' , made from chestnuts.

Similarly, the Chinese term ''dou sha'' , which literally means "bean sand" due to its fine texture, applies to red bean paste when used without qualifiers, although ''hongdou sha'' explicitly means red bean paste .

Uses

Chinese

Red bean paste is used in many Chinese foods, such as:
* : Red bean paste with more water added to form a ''tong sui'', or thick, sweet soup. Often cooked and eaten with ''tangyuan'' and lotus seeds. This is almost always a dessert.
* ''Tangyuan'' : Glutinous rice balls filled with sweet fillings such as red bean paste and boiled in plain or sweetened water.
* ''Zongzi'' : Glutinous rice and red bean paste wrapped with bamboo leaves and steamed or boiled. The glutinous rice used to make zongzi is usually specially prepared and appears yellow.
* Mooncakes (; yùe bíng）: A baked pastry consisting of thin dough surrounding a filling. The filling is traditionally made from various ingredients, including mashed lotus seeds, red bean paste, or other fillings. The texture of this filling is quite similar to straight red bean paste.
* ''Baozi'' : Steamed leavened bread filled with a variety of savory or sweet fillings.
* Red bean cake
* Red bean pancake

Japanese

Red bean paste is used in many Japanese sweets, such as:
* Anmitsu
* Anpan
* Daifuku
* Dango
* Dorayaki
*
* Oshiruko or ''Zenzai''
* Taiyaki
*
*

Korean

Red bean paste is used in various Korean snack foods and desserts; including:
*Baram Dduk
*Bungeoppang
*Hotteok
*Patbingsu
*Patdanja
*Patjuk
*Pattteok

It is a custom in Korea to eat red bean paste on the winter solstice day. It was said to expel bad spirits out of the person, and keep the person healthy throughout the winter by warming the body.

Cultural use

*The cartoon hero Anpanman is an anthropomorphic ''anpan'' bun filled with azuki bean paste.
*Anko is also the given name of a character from the popular manga/anime ''Naruto''. Anko and Mitarashi, her family name, are also ingredients in her favorite food, dango.
*In Natsume Sōseki classic novel ''I Am a Cat'', Prof. Sneeze is addicted to red bean jam, on which his wife blames both his dyspepsia and the family's unaffordable food bills.

Rapeseed

2008-09-17T07:24:00.007-07:00

Rapeseed , also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and canola, is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae . The name derives from the Latin for turnip, ''rāpum'' or ''rāpa'', and is first recorded in at the end of the 14th century. Older writers usually distinguished the turnip and rape by the adjectives ''round'' and ''long'' respectively. See also ''Brassica napobrassica'', which may be considered a variety of ''Brassica napus''. Some botanists include the closely related ''Brassica campestris'' within ''B. napus''.

Cultivation and uses

Rapeseed is grown for the production of animal feed, vegetable oil for human consumption, and biodiesel; leading producers include the European Union, Canada, the United States, Australia, China and India. In India, it is grown on 13% of cropped land. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, rapeseed was the third leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and oil palm, and also the world's second leading source of protein meal, although only one-fifth of the production of the leading soybean meal. World production is growing rapidly, with reporting that 36 million tonnes of rapeseed was produced in the 2003-4 season, and 46 million tonnes in 2004-5. In Europe, rapeseed is primarily cultivated for animal feed , and is a leading option for Europeans to avoid importation of GMO products.

Natural rapeseed oil contains 50% erucic acid, which is mildly toxic to humans in large doses but is used as a food additive in smaller doses. Wild type seeds also contain high levels of glucosinolates , chemical compounds that significantly lowered the nutritional value of rape seed press cakes for animal feed. Canola, originally a syncopated form of the abbreviation "Can.O., L-A." that was used by the Manitoba government to label the seed during its experimental stages, is now a tradename for 'double low' have started to produce cold-pressed rapeseed oil as a cooking oil and dressing.

Biodiesel

Rapeseed oil is used in the manufacture of biodiesel for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage, and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Formerly, owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed derived biodiesel cost more to produce than standard diesel fuel. Prices of rapeseed oil are at very high levels presently owing to increased demand on rapeseed oil for this purpose. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soy beans.

Health effects

Rapeseed has been linked with adverse effects in asthma and hay fever sufferers. Some suggest that oilseed pollen increases breathing difficulties. But this is unlikely as rapeseed is an entomophilous crop, with pollen transfer primarily by insects. Others suggest that this is caused by the inhalation of oilseed rape dust, and that to the pollen are relatively rare. It may also be that since rapeseed in flower has a distinctive and pungent smell, hay fever sufferers wrongly blame the rapeseed just because they can smell it. An alternative explanation may be that it is simply the sheer volume of rapeseed pollen in the air around farmland which triggers an allergic reaction in hayfever sufferers on inhalation, or following prolonged exposure to high levels.

Controversy

The has new cultivars of rapeseed that are resistant to the effects of its herbicide Roundup. They have been vigorously prosecuting farmers found to have the ''Roundup Ready'' gene in Canola in their fields without paying a license fee. These farmers have claimed the ''Roundup Ready'' gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered Canola. Other farmers claim that after spraying Roundup in non-Canola fields to kill weeds before planting, ''Roundup Ready'' volunteers are left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.

In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for illegal growing of ''Roundup Ready'' in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser. The case garnered international controversy as a court-sanctioned legitimation for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops.

Production

Worldwide production of rapeseed rose to 46.4 million metric tons in 2005, the highest recorded total .

Pests and diseases

Animal pests

* Harlequin bug
* Flea beetles ,
* Diamondback moths ,
* Bertha armyworms ,
* Root maggots
* Grasshoppers
* Lygus bugs
* Bronzed field beetle larvae
* Snails and slugs

Diseases

* Beet Western Yellows virus
* Blackleg, caused by the fungus ''Leptosphaeria maculans''
* Clubroot, caused by protist ''Plasmodiophora brassicae''
* Sclerotinia white stem rot
* White rust disease, caused by the fungus ''Albugo candida''

Genome sequencing and genetics

The 'A' genome component of the amphidiploid Rapeseed species ''B. napus'' is currently being sequenced by an international consortium.

Prunus mume

2008-09-17T07:24:00.005-07:00

Prunus mume, commonly known as or Japanese apricot, is a species of Asian in the family Rosaceae. The flower, long a beloved subject in the traditional painting of East Asia and Vietnam, is usually translated as plum blossom.

The tree originates from China, and was brought to Japan and Korea later. The tree is cultivated for its fruit and flowers. Although generally referred to as a plum in the English language, it is actually more closely related to the apricot.

The tree flowers in late winter, typically late January or February in East Asia, before the leaves appear. Each flower has five petals and is 1–3 in diameter. The flowers have coloring ranging from white to rose to deep red. The leaves appear shortly after the petals fall. The leaves are oval, with a pointed tip. The fruit ripens in early summer, typically June in East Asia. The ripening of the fruit coincides with the rainy season of China and Japan, '''' , read ''baiu'' or ''tsuyu'' in Japanese. Each fruit is round with a groove running from the stalk to the tip. The skin is green when unripe, and turns yellow, sometimes with a red blush, as it ripens. The flesh becomes yellow.

Names

The plant is known by a number of different names in . One translation is Japanese apricot. Other variants include Japanese plum and Chinese plum . An alternative name used in North America is ume, from the Japanese name. An alternative name used in Australia is mume, from the scientific name, and ultimately based on an older, alternative Japanese pronunciation—possibly the original—of "mme" , which was written "mume" . Another alternative is mei, from the Chinese name, which is usually seen in the context of Chinese art and cuisine, and imports from Chinese-speaking regions.

Sometimes names such as ume'' plum and umeboshi'' plum are also seen. For the tree and flower, names like Japanese flowering apricot, flowering plum, and winter plum may be used, the latter specifically with regard to depiction of the flower in Chinese painting.

In it is called méi or méizi The name is ume while the name is maesil . The Japanese and Korean terms derive from Middle Chinese, in which the pronunciation is thought to have been ''mu?i''.. The name is mai or m? .

Varieties

China

In China, there are over 300 recorded cultivars of ''mei'', which can be broadly divided by colour into white, pink, red, purple, and light green types. Some varieties are especially famed for their ornamental value, including the ''Dahong mei'' , ''Taige mei'' , ''Zhaoshui mei'' , ''Lü'e mei'' , ''Longyou mei'' .

As the ''mei'' can usually grow for a long time, ancient ''mei'' trees are found throughout China. in Hubei features a 1600-year-old ''mei'' tree from the which is still flowering.

Japan

In Japan, ume cultivars are classified into ''yabai'' types, ''hibai'' types, and ''bungo'' type. The ''bungo'' trees are also grown for fruit and supposed to be hybrids between ume and apricot. The ''hibai'' trees have red and most of them have red flowers. The ''yabai'' trees are also used as grafting stock.

Uses

Culinary use

Juice

''Ume'' juice is extracted by preserving the fruits in sugar. In China, sour plum juice is made from ''ume'' . It ranges from light pinkish orange to purplish black in color and often has a smoky and slightly salty taste. It is traditionally flavoured with sweet osmanthus flowers, and is enjoyed chilled, usually in summer. The juice produced in Japan and Korea, made from green ''ume'', tastes sweet and tangy, and is considered a refreshing drink, also often enjoyed in the summer. In Korea, ''maesil'' juice, which is marketed as a healthful tonic, is enjoying increasing popularity. It is commercially available in glass jars in sweetened, concentrated syrup form; it is reconstituted by stirring a small amount of syrup into a glass of water. The syrup may also be prepared at home by storing one part fresh ''maesil'' in a container with one part sugar .

Liquor

''Ume'' liquor, also known as "plum wine", is popular in both Japan and Korea, and is also produced in China. ''Umeshu'' is a Japanese alcoholic drink made by steeping green ''ume'' in ''shōchū'' . It is sweet and smooth. The taste and aroma of ''umeshu'' can appeal to even those people who normally dislike alcohol. A similar liquor in Korea, called ''maesil ju'' , is marketed under various brand names including Mae Hwa Su, Mae Chui Soon, and Seol Joong Mae. Both the Japanese and Korean varieties of ''ume'' liquor are available with whole ''ume'' fruits contained in the bottle.

In China, ''ume'' wine is called ''mei jiu'' .

In Taiwan, a popular post-World War II innovation on Japanese-style ''umeshu'' is the ''wumeijiu'', or '''' liquor , which is made by mixing ''Prunus mume'' liquor , ''Prunus salicina'' liquor , and Oolong tea liquor.

Pickled and preserved ''ume''

''Umeboshi'' , or pickled ''ume'', are a Japanese specialty. Flavoured with salt and purple '''' leaves, they are red in color and quite salty and sour, and therefore eaten sparingly. ''Umeboshi'' are generally eaten with rice as part of a bento, although they may also be used in ''''. ''Makizushi'' made with ''ume'' may be made with either ''umeboshi'' or ''umeboshi'' paste, often in conjunction with green ''shiso'' leaves. A by-product of ''umeboshi'' production is ''umeboshi'' vinegar, a salty, sour condiment. In Chinese cuisine, ''ume'' that are pickled with vinegar and salt are called ''suān méizi'' , and have a similar intensely sour and salty flavor as ''umeboshi''.

''Huamei'' , or Chinese preserved plum, refers to any of a large number of Chinese foods involving plums pickled in sugar, salt, and herbs such as . There are two general varieties: a dried variety, and a wet variety.

In , a very similar variety of pickled ume is called ''xí mu?i'' or ''? mai''.

Sauce

A thick, sweet Chinese sauce called ''mei jiang'' or ''meizi jiang'' , usually translated as "plum sauce," is also made from ''ume'', along with other ingredients such as sugar, vinegar, salt, ginger, chili, and garlic. Similar to duck sauce, it is used as a condiment for various Chinese dishes, including poultry dishes and egg rolls.

Medicinal use

In traditional Chinese medicine, the smoked fruits, called ''wumei'' , are used for medicinal purposes. They are generally black in color and are believed to be effective against parasites, as well as in stopping ulcers and promoting a strong digestive system and heart.

Cultural significance

''Ume'' flowers have been well loved and celebrated in China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Mainland China and Taiwan

In China, they are most commonly used as decoration during the Chinese New Year. The blossoms are common subjects in Chinese art and are among the most beloved of Chinese flowers. Unlike the Japanese, however, the Chinese see the blossoms as more of a symbol for winter rather than a harbinger of spring. It is precisely for this reason that the blossoms are so beloved, because they bloom most vibrantly amidst the winter snow, after other plants have shed their leaves, and before any other flowers appear. Thus, they are seen as an example of resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity, and have also been used as a metaphor to symbolize revolutionary struggle. Because they blossom in winter, the plum blossom, the pine, and the bamboo together have been called the "Three Friends of the Cold" .

Apart from that, the blossom is one of the Four Gentlemen in Chinese art , symbolizing nobility. These are also the four flowers that appear on mahjong tile sets, where ''mei'' is usually simply translated as "plum" in English.

The blossom has long been a floral symbol of the ancient Chinese city of Nanjing. In 1964, the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China adopted the five-petaled plum blossom as the national flower of the Republic of China.. It also serves as the logo of China Airlines, the national carrier of the Republic of China. The flower features prominently on the and other national symbols. In mainland China, the flower also features on and other important symbols.

Japan

''Ume'' blossoms are often mentioned in Japanese poetry as a symbol of spring. When used in haiku or renga, they are a ''kigo'' or season word for early spring. The blossoms are associated with the Japanese Bush Warbler, and they are depicted together as one of the twelve on ''hanafuda'' . During the Nara period , the blossom of the ''ume'' tree was preferred over the ''sakura'' blossom, which became popular after the Heian period .

Japanese tradition holds that the ''Ume'' functions as a protective charm against evil. For this reason, the ''Ume'' is traditionally planted in the north-east of the garden, the direction from which evil is believed to come. The eating of the pickled fruit for breakfast is also supposed to stave off misfortune.

Vietnam

In Vietnam, due to the beauty of the tree and its flowers, the word ''mai'' is used to name girls. In Confucianism, ''mai'' is named in the group of Four Gentlemen : ''lan'' , ''cúc'' , ''trúc'' , and ''mai''. The largest hospital in Hanoi is named , another hospital in Hanoi is named , situated in Hong Mai street. Hoang Mai is the name of a district in Hanoi. is also a long and old street in Hanoi. All these places are located in the south part of Hanoi, where, in the past, many ''Prunus mume'' were grown.

Due to its characteristics, beautiful flowers and a tall, slender tree, ''mai'' is used to describe the beauty of women in expressions such as "Mình h?c x??ng mai" - crane's body, plum's bones, and "G?y nh? mai" - as slender as a plum tree.

H? Qu? Ly wooed and won Princess Nh?t Chi Mai of the Tr?n king after seeing a parallel couplet:

:''Thanh Th? ?i?n ti?n thiên th? qu?''
:''Qu?ng Hàn cung l? Nh?t Chi Mai.''

meaning: Thanh Th? palace, thousands of cinnamon trees here

Qu?ng Hàn palace, Nh?t Chi Mai there".

Nh?t Chi Mai is the name of the princess, but also means a branch of ''mai'', implying a beautiful girl.

The Zen monk Thi?n s? M?n Giác monk composed a poem "Cáo t?t th? chúng" .

:''Xu?n kh? bách hoa l?c'' Spring goes, hundreds of flower fall
:''Xu?n ?áo bách hoa khai'' Spring comes, hundreds of flowers blossom.
:''S? tr?c nh?n ti?n qúa'' In front of the eyes, everything goes on ever
:''L?o tùng ??u th??ng lai'' On the heads, showing the year of age soon comes.
:''M?c v? xu?n tàn hoa l?c t?n'' Who can say when spring ends, all flowers fall down?
:''?ình ti?n t?c d?'' nh?t chi mai Last night, in front-yard, a branch of plum flower blossomed.

In this poem, ''nh?t chi mai'' serves as a metaphor for ''hope'' .

The ''mai'' used to celebrate the new year in the south, similar to the peach in the north, is in fact a different plant from ''Prunus mume'' .

Prawn ball

2008-09-17T07:24:00.003-07:00

Prawn balls are a common cooked food in southern China and overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, with its origin from the of the Chaoshan region in eastern Guangdong. As the name suggests, the food is balls made with prawn meat that has been finely pulverized. Gourmet prawn balls are pulverized by hand.

Portunus pelagicus

2008-09-17T07:24:00.001-07:00

Portunus pelagicus, also known as the ''flower crab'', ''blue crab'', ''blue swimmer crab'', ''blue manna crab'' or ''sand crab'', is a large crab found in the intertidal of the and Pacific Oceans and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The name "flower crab" is used in east Asian countries while the latter names are used in Australia. The crabs are widely distributed in eastern Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.

The males are bright blue in colour with white spots and with characteristically long , while the females have a duller green/brown, with a more rounded carapace. The carapace can be up to 20 in width.

They stay buried under sand or mud most of the time, particularly during the daytime and winter, which may explain their high tolerance to and . They come out to feed during high tide on various organsims such as bivalves, fish and, to a lesser extent, macroalgae. They are excellent swimmers, largely due to a pair of flattened legs that resemble paddles. However, in contrast to another portunid crab , they cannot survive for long periods out of the water.

The species is commercially important throughout the Indo-Pacific where they may be sold as traditional hard shells, or as "soft shelled" crabs, which are considered a delicacy throughout Asia. The species is highly prized as the meat is almost as sweet as the blue crab, although ''P. pelagicus'' is physically much larger.

These characteristics, along with their fast growth, ease of larviculture, high fecundity and relatively high tolerance to both nitrate and ammonia . This may explain their mass emigration from estuaries to seawater during the rainy season.

Persimmon

2008-09-17T07:23:00.008-07:00

A persimmon is the edible fruit of a number of species of trees of the genus ''Diospyros'' in the ebony wood family . The word ''persimmon'' is derived from ''putchamin'', ''pasiminan'', or ''pessamin'', from Powhatan, an of the eastern United States, meaning "a dry fruit". Persimmons are generally light to dark red-orange in color, and depending on the species, vary in size from 1.5-9 cm diameter, and may be spherical, acorn-, or pumpkin-shaped. The often remains attached to the fruit after harvesting, but becomes easier to remove as it ripens. They are high in glucose, with a balanced protein profile, and possess various medicinal and chemical uses. While the persimmon fruit is not considered a "common berry" it is in fact a "true berry" by definition.

Species

The Persimmon originated in China and is widespread in northeast Asian countries. The most widely cultivated species is the Japanese , called "shizi" in Chinese. These are sweet, slightly tart fruits with a soft to occasionally fibrous texture. This species, native to China, is deciduous, with broad, stiff leaves. Cultivation of the fruit extended first to other parts of east Asia, and was later introduced to California and southern Europe in the 1800s, and numerous cultivars have been selected. It is edible in its crisp firm state, but has its best flavor when allowed to rest and soften slightly after harvest. The Japanese cultivar 'Hachiya' is a widely grown cultivar. The fruit has a high tannin content which makes the immature fruit astringent and bitter. The tannin levels are reduced as the fruit matures. Persimmons like 'Hachiya' must be completely ripened before consumption. When ripe, this fruit comprises thick pulpy jelly encased in a waxy thin skinned shell. "Sharon Fruit" is the trade name for ''D. kaki'' fruit that has been artificially ripened with chemicals. It is also known as the "Korean Mango".

The American persimmon is native to the eastern United States and is higher in nutrients like vitamin C and calcium than the Japanese Persimmon.
The Black persimmon or Black sapote is native to Mexico. Its fruit has green skin and white flesh, which turns black when ripe.

The Mabolo or Velvet-apple is native to the Philippines. It is bright red when ripe.

The Date-plum is native to southwest Asia and southeast Europe. It was known to the ancient as "the fruit of the Gods", i.e. ''Dios pyros'' , hence the scientific name of the genus. Its name probably derives from ''Khormaloo'' ?????? literally "Date-Plum", referring to the taste of this fruit which is a reminiscent of both plums and . This species is one candidate for the lotus mentioned in ''the Odyssey'': it was so delicious that those who ate it forgot about returning home and wanted to stay and eat lotus with the .

There are many other species of persimmon that are inedible to humans, and thus have little or no commercial value for their fruit.

Fruit

Commercially, there are generally two types of persimmon fruit: astringent and non-astringent.

The heart-shaped Hachiya is the most common variety of astringent persimmon. Astringent persimmons contain very high levels of soluble tannins and are unpalatable if eaten before softening. The astringency of tannins is removed through ripening by exposure to light over several days, or artificially with chemicals such as alcohol and carbon dioxide which change tannin into the insoluble form. This bletting process is sometimes jumpstarted by exposing the fruit to cold or frost which hastens cellular wall breakdown. These astringent persimmons can also be prepared for commercial purposes by drying.

The non-astringent persimmon is squat like a tomato and is most commonly sold as fuyu. Non-astringent persimmons are not actually free of tannins as the term suggests, but rather are far less astringent before ripening, and lose more of their tannic quality sooner. Non-astringent persimmons may be consumed when still very firm to very very soft.

There is a third type, less commonly available, the pollination-variant non-astringent persimmons. When fully pollinated, the flesh of these fruit is brown inside -known as goma in Japan, and the fruit can be eaten firm. These varieties are highly sought after and can be found at specialty markets or farmers markets only. Tsurunoko, sold as "Chocolate persimmon" for its dark brown flesh, Maru, sold as "Cinnamon persimmon" for its spicy flavor, and Hyakume, sold as "Brown sugar" are the three best known.

Culinary uses

Persimmons are eaten fresh or dried, or cooked. When eaten fresh the peel is usually cut/peeled off and the fruit is often cut into quarters or eaten whole like an apple. The flesh ranges from firm to mushy and the texture is unique. The flesh is very sweet and when firm possesses an apple-like crunch.
In China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam after harvesting, 'Hachiya' persimmons are prepared using traditional hand-drying techniques, outdoors for two to three weeks. The fruit is then further dried by exposure to heat over several days before being shipped to market. In Japan the dried fruit is called ''hoshigaki'' , in China it is known as "shi-bing" , in Korea it is known as ''gotgam'' , and in Vietnam it is called ''h?ng kh?''. It is eaten as a snack or dessert and used for other culinary purposes.
In Korea, dried persimmon fruits are used to make the traditional Korean spicy , ''sujeonggwa'', while the matured, fermented fruit is used to make a persimmon vinegar called ''gamsikcho'' , which is believed to have a wide variety of holistic properties. The ''hoshigaki'' tradition traveled to California with Japanese American immigrants. A few farms still practice the art, which is being revived in part through the efforts of Slow Food USA, which describes the technique on its site and provides links to producers.

In Taiwan, fruits of astringent varieties are sealed in jars filled with lime water to get rid of bitterness. Slightly hardened in the process, they are sold under the name "crisp persimmon" or "water persimmon" . Preparation time is dependent upon temperature . In some areas of and Korea, the dried leaves of the fruit are used for making tea. The Korean name for this tea is ''ghamnip cha'' .

The persimmon also figures prominently in American culinary tradition. It can be used in cookies, cakes, puddings, salads and as a topping for breakfast cereal. Persimmon pudding is a dessert using fresh persimmons. An annual persimmon festival, featuring a persimmon pudding contest, is held every September in Mitchell, Indiana. Persimmon pudding is a baked pudding that has the consistency of pumpkin pie but resembles a and is almost always topped with whipped cream. Persimmons may be stored at room temperature where they will continue to ripen. It is also a native plant in Brazil, South America, where it is referred to as the Caqui.

Ethnomedical uses

*In traditional Chinese medicine the fruit regulates ch'i
*The raw fruit is used to treat constipation and hemorrhoids, and to stop bleeding. As such, it is not a good idea to consume too many persimmons at once- they can induce diarrhea.
*The cooked fruit is used to treat diarrhea and dysentery

Phytonutrients

The fruits of some persimmon varieties contain the tannins catechin and gallocatechin, as well as the anti-tumor compounds betulinic acid and shibuol, although the latter may also cause gastrointestinal problems.

Medical precaution

Unripened persimmons contain the soluble tannin shibuol, which, upon contact with a weak acid, polymerizes in the stomach and forms a gluey coagulum that can affix with other stomach matter. The ''Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy'' notes that consumption of persimmons has been known to cause bezoars that require surgery in over 90% of cases. More than 85% phytobesoars are caused by ingestion of unrippened persimmons. Persimmon bezoars often occur in epidemics in regions where the fruit is grown. Horses may develop a taste for the fruit growing on a tree in their pasture and overindulge also, making them quite ill. It is often advised that persimmons should not be eaten with crab meat, nor should they be eaten on an empty stomach.

Wood

Though persimmon trees belong to the same genus as ebony trees, persimmon tree wood has a limited use in the manufacture of objects requiring hard wood. Persimmon wood is used for paneling in traditional Korean and Japanese furniture.

In North America, the lightly colored, fine-grained wood of ''D. virginiana'' is used to manufacture cues and shuttles . Persimmon wood was also heavily used in making the highest-quality heads of the known as "woods," until the golf industry moved primarily to metal woods in the last years of the 20th century. Persimmon woods are still made, but in far lower numbers than in past decades. Over the last few decades persimmon wood has become popular among bow craftsmen, especially in the making of traditional longbows.

Like some other plants of the genus ''Diospyros'', older persimmon heartwood is black or dark brown in color, in stark contrast to the sapwood and younger heartwood, which is pale in color.

Gallery

Image:Persimmon Garden.jpg|Persimmon orchard northern , Japan.
Image:Hachiya persimmons on tree close-up.jpg|Hachiya persimmons in December

Napa cabbage

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Napa cabbage , from , also called ''baechu'' in or ''hakusai'' in , is a type of Chinese cabbage originating in China, near the Beijing region, and is widely used in . Napa cabbage is lighter in color than ordinary Chinese cabbage .

In Korean cuisine, it is used in making the most common type of kimchi. It is the main ingredient of ''baechu kimchi'', but is also eaten raw as a wrap for pork or oysters, dipped in gochujang. The outer, tougher leaves are called ''ugeoji'', and used in soups.

Nutrition

Napa cabbage is widely used in China, Japan, and Korea. Because of immigrants from these nations, it is also readily found in most North American cities. Napa cabbage is made up primarily of water .

The yellow part of the leaves have higher concentrations of vitamin A than the white or green parts.

Reference

Myrica rubra

2008-09-17T07:23:00.005-07:00

Myrica rubra, also called yangmei , yamamomo , Yumberry, Chinese Bayberry, Japanese Bayberry, Red Bayberry, or Chinese strawberry tree is a subtropical tree grown for its sweet, crimson to dark purple-red, edible fruit.

It is native to eastern Asia, mainly in China, where it has been grown for at least 2000 years, and probably also Japan and Southeast Asia as well. Chinese cultivation is concentrated south of the Yangtze River, where it is of considerable economic importance.

In Japan, it is the flower of and the prefectural tree of . The plant's name appears in many old Japanese poems.

Characteristics

It is a small to medium-sized tree growing to 10-20 metres in height, evergreen, with smooth gray bark and a uniform spherical to hemispherical crown. It is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. It tolerates poor acidic soils. The root system is shallow , with no obvious taproot.

The fruit is spherical, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, with a knobby surface. The surface color is typically a deep, brilliant red, but may vary from white to purple. The flesh color is similar to surface color, or somewhat lighter. The flesh is sweet and very tart. At the center is a single seed, with a diameter about half that of the whole fruit.

Research

Various species of Myrica have been studied scientifically for horticultural characteristics or phytochemicals implicated with health benefits. Dating to 1951, the horticultural literature includes studies on
* nitrogen-fixing ability of the root nodules system
* presence of Frankia bacteria having nitrogen-fixing properties in root nodules
* microbial characteristics of the subcanopy soil
* niche characteristics in the forest environment
* growth of pollen tubes

The medical literature is diverse, with studies of phytochemicals from bark, leaves and fruit. Significant progress has been reported on polyphenols, particularly ellagic acid, tannins and anthocyanins, antioxidant activity, anti-cancer and anti-viral properties.
An extract from fruit called myricerone blocks a receptor for the peptide, endothelin, an important mediator of blood vessel constriction, indicating potential for drug development.

Uses

Besides fresh consumption, the fruits are commonly dried, canned, soaked in ''baijiu'' , or fermented into alcoholic beverages. Some cultivars with large fruit, up to 4 cm diameter, have been developed. A dye may be prepared from the bark. The plant is also used as ornamental trees for parks and streets.

Lychee

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The Lychee , also spelled Litchi or Laichi and Lichu, : 荔枝, Hanyu Pinyin: Lìzhī, is the sole member of the genus ''Litchi'' in the soapberry family Sapindaceae. It is a tropical fruit tree native to southern China. It is also commonly found in Madagascar, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, southern Taiwan, northern Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.

It is a medium-sized evergreen tree, reaching 15–20 m tall, with alternate pinnate , each leaf 15–25 cm long, with 2-8 lateral leaflets 5–10 cm long; the terminal leaflet is absent. The newly emerging young leaves are a bright coppery red at first, before turning green as they expand to full size. The flowers are small, greenish-white or yellowish-white, produced in panicles up to 30 cm long.

The fruit is a drupe, 3–4 cm long and 3 cm in diameter. The outside is covered by a pink-red, roughly-textured rind that is inedible but easily removed. The inside consists of a layer of sweet, translucent white flesh, rich in vitamin C, with a texture somewhat similar to that of a grape. The edible flesh consists of a highly developed aril enveloping the seed. The center contains a single glossy brown -like seed, 2 cm long and 1–1.5 cm in diameter. The seed, similar to a seed, is not poisonous but should not be eaten. The fruit matures from July to October, about 100 days after flowering.
There are two subspecies:
*''Litchi chinensis'' subsp. ''chinensis''. China, Indochina . Leaves with 4 to 8 leaflets.
*''Litchi chinensis'' subsp. ''philippinensis'' Leenh. Philippines, Indonesia. Leaves with 2-4 leaflets.

History

A major early historical reference to lychees was made in the Tang Dynasty, when it was the favourite fruit of 's favoured concubine . The emperor had the fruit, which was only grown in southern China, delivered by the imperial messenger service's fast horses, whose riders would take shifts day and night in a Pony Express-like manner, to the capital.

In the Chinese classical work, ''Shanglin Fu'' , it is related that the alternate name, 離枝 , meaning leaving its branches, is so-called because once the fruit is picked it deteriorates quickly.

The lychee was first described in the West by Pierre Sonnerat on a return from his travel to China and Southeast Asia.

It was then introduced to the Réunion Island in 1764 by Joseph-Fran?ois Charpentier de Cossigny de Palma. It was later introduced to Madagascar which has become a major producer.

Cultivation and uses

Lychees are extensively grown in the native region of China, and also elsewhere in South-East Asia, especially in north of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, India, southern Japan, Taiwan, and more recently in California, Hawaii, and Florida in the United States, the wetter areas of eastern Australia and sub-tropical regions of South Africa, also in the state of Sinaloa in Mexico. They require a warm subtropical to tropical climate that is cool but also frost-free or with only very slight winter frosts not below -4°C, and with high summer heat, rainfall, and humidity. Growth is best on well-drained, slightly acidic soils rich in organic matter. A wide range of cultivars is available, with early and late maturing forms suited to warmer and cooler climates respectively. They are also grown as an ornamental tree as well as for their fruit.

Lychees are commonly sold fresh in Vietnamese, and Asian markets, and in recent years, also widely in supermarkets worldwide. The red rind turns dark brown when the fruit is refrigerated, but the taste is not affected. It is also sold canned year-round. The fruit can be dried with the rind intact, at which point the flesh shrinks and darkens.

According to folklore, a lychee tree that is not producing much fruit can be , leading to more fruit production.

Cultivars

There are many different cultivars of lychee , of which two are considered to be the most sought-after.

The "Prestigious Cultivars"

* Sweet Osmanthus Flavour : Named because of the Sweet Osmanthus flavour it contains, this lychee has light red shells, which contains sharp edges. The fruits are described as crispy and sweet. There is a related cultivar, called "Yatou Green" . The shell of this cultivar has dark green spots.

* Glutinous Rice Ball : Named after its thick fruit flesh and sweet flavours. The fresh red shells are not sharp and hard, and the seeds from this cultivar are noticeably smaller than others. Some fruits from this cultivar are seedless.

V?i thi?u

''V?i thi?u'' is a well-known cultivar in Vietnam. It roots in , Hai Duong province and recently exists in , Bac Giang province.
The fruit is notable for its small globe, red shell, tiny or no seed, very sweet taste and special favour.

Other notable cultivars

*Baila
*Baitangying
*Black Leaves : This cultivar matures less than others, and has big meats and seeds. The shell exhibits a dark red tint.
*Huaizhi : Literally "Branches in the arms of ", this lychee supposedly received its name when a government official toured Lingnan and placed within his arms lychee branches gifted by local villagers.
*March Red : This lychee matures the earliest, and are usually available annually around March. This particular type has a more subtle fragrance and is sweeter than most.
*The Concubine Smiles : Famed as the cultivar of lychee Emperor Xuanzong of Tang brought from the edges of the Tang empire to cheer up Yang Guifei, this lychee matures earlier than others, and has a very light red tint on its shells.
*The Jade Purse : Named because of its large fruits and the thick flesh within. The seed is small in this cultivar.

Name in different languages

The name 'lychee' comes from the , which may have been in Middle Chinese. This name in various forms is used throughout South and East Asia.

Lychee in space

The first lychee in space was launched aboard the Bigelow Aerospace spacecraft ''Genesis II'' on June 28, 2007 as part of the private aerospace firm's "Fly Your Stuff" program. Guy Pignolet de Pluton, a professor at Université de la Réunion in Sainte-Rose, Réunion, provided the lychee which has been imaged on Bigelow Aerospace's website.

Gallery

Lotus seed paste

2008-09-17T07:23:00.001-07:00

Lotus seed paste is a dessert ingredient made from dried lotus seeds.

Production

The process for making the paste is similar to that used to make smooth red bean paste. First, the dried seeds are stewed in water until soft and then mashed into a fine paste. The paste is then watered down to a thin slurry and passed through a sieve and into cheesecloth, with which it is squeezed dry. This produces a fine crumbly paste, which is then mixed with sugar or other sweeteners.

Use

China

The lotus paste used by most Chinese cooks requires further preparation by dry cooking the sweetened paste over heat with caramelized sugar and vegetable oil. This produces a lotus paste that is tan coloured with a satiny sheen, which is rich, sweet, and silky with a slight fragrance of caramel. Some cooks choose to treat the dried lotus seeds with a lye solution before initially stewing them in order to shorten their cooking time.

Lotus paste is used in Chinese cuisine as a filling for ''mooncake'', ''baozi'', and other sweet pastries. Another common use of lotus paste is as a filling for lotus seed buns, a dim sum item.

Due to the higher price of lotus seeds, commercially prepared lotus pastes may also contain bean paste as a filler. There are different variations with some darker, close to black in color. Usually these have a deeper taste.

Japan

This sweetened lotus paste is directly used by the Japanese as a filling for various without further processing. It is milky in colour with a fresh, light, and sweet taste, and without any perceivable smell.

Lotus seed

2008-09-17T07:22:00.003-07:00

Lotus seeds or Lotus nuts are the seeds of plants in the genus ''Nelumbo'', particularly the species ''Nelumbo nucifera''. The seeds are of great importance to East Asian cuisine and are used extensively in traditional Chinese medicine and in . The seeds are most commonly sold in the shelled and dried form. Fresh lotus seeds are relatively uncommon in the market except in areas of lotus root and seed production, where they are sometimes sold as a raw snack.

Types

Two types of dried lotus seeds can be found commercially; ''brown peel'' and ''white''. The former is harvested when the seed head of the lotus is ripe or nearly ripe and the latter is harvested when the seed head is still fully green, but with almost fully developed seeds. White lotus seeds are de-shelled and de-membraned. The bitter tasting germ of the seed is also removed at the time of harvest using a hollow needle, though some may still remain in the seed due to production oversight. Brown peel lotus seeds are brown because the ripened seed has adhered to its membrane. These seeds are usually cracked in half in order to remove the germ since the seeds are hard enough to make the germs' removal by needle difficult.

Dried lotus seeds past their prime oxidize to a yellow brown colour. However, this is not necessarily an indicator of freshness since sellers of dried lotus seeds may choose to bleach their products with hydrogen peroxide, sodium hydroxide, or other more toxic chemicals.

Uses

Dried lotus seeds that are sold in packages or in bulk at many must first be soaked in water overnight prior to use due to their hardness and toughness. They can then be added directly to soups and congee, or used in other dishes.

Fresh lotus seeds are sold in the seed heads of the plant and eaten by breaking the individual seeds out of cone shaped head. The soft rubbery shell that surrounds each seed should be removed before consuming.

Crystallized lotus seeds , made by drying lotus seeds cooked in syrup, are a well-loved Chinese snack and are eaten especially near Chinese new year.

The most common use of the seed is in the form of lotus seed paste , which is used extensively in . The paste is also used in Japanese cuisine, as an ingredient in cakes and other dessert items.

Chinese medicinal foods

When cooked in clear soups, lotus seeds are believed in Chinese medicine to "clear heat" and be particularly nutritious and restorative to one's health, which may explain the prevalence of their use in Chinese cuisine.

Other ingredients that are considered "cooling" or restorative in Chinese medicines, which are often cooked in a sweetened soup with lotus seeds include:
*Azuki beans
*Job's tears
*Dried jujubes
*Mung beans
*Asian pear
*Snow fungus

Lotus soups sometimes also include a whole chicken, other poultry, or fish for similar medicinal purposes.

The bitter dried germ of the lotus seed can also be found sold as a restorative tisane .

Longan

2008-09-17T07:22:00.001-07:00

The longan is a tropical tree native to southern China. It is also found in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is also called ''guiyuan'' in , ''lengkeng'' in Indonesia, ''mata kucing'' in Malaysia, ''nh?n'' in Vietnamese , ''Mora'' in Sinhalese and also "longan" in Tagalog.

Description

The tree can grow up to 12 metres in height, and the plant is very sensitive to frost. Longan trees require sandy soil and temperatures that do not typically go below 4.5 degrees Celsius . Longans and lychees bear fruit at around the same time of the year.

The longan is so named because of the fruit's resemblance to an eyeball when it is shelled . The seed is small, round and hard.

To express longan fruit, Vietnamese has a wonder: ''Da cóc mà b?c b?t l?c, b?t l?c mà b?c hòn than'' : toad's skin is the ugly skin, tapioca wheat is the clear white flesh and coal ball is the black seed.

Culinary uses

The fruit is edible, and is often used in East Asian soups, snacks, desserts, and sweet-and-sour foods, either fresh or dried, sometimes canned with syrup in supermarkets. The seeds of fresh longan can be boiled and eaten, with a distinctive nutty flavor.

Dried longan are often used in Chinese cuisine and Chinese sweet dessert soups. In Chinese food therapy and , it is believed to have an effect on relaxation. In contrast with the fresh fruit, which is juicy and white, the flesh of dried longans is dark brown to almost black. In Chinese medicine the longan, much like the lychee, is considered a "warm" fruit.

Kombu

2008-09-17T07:19:00.005-07:00

Kombu or konbu , also called dashima , or haidai , are edible kelp from the genus ''Laminaria'' widely eaten in East Asia.

Over 90 percent of Japanese kombu is cultivated, and most is harvested, in Hokkaidō. It is cultivated as far south as the Seto Inland Sea.

History

The earliest written record of kombu appeared in Shoku Nihongi in 797 as a gift and tax from the Tōhoku Region. Its actual use is believed to be much earlier, most likely dating back to the Jōmon period, but as it easily decomposes, no archaeological evidence can be found. During the Muromachi period, a newly developed drying technique allowed kombu to be stored for more than a few days and kombu became an important export from the Tohoku area . By the Edo period, as Hokkaidō was colonized and shipment routes were organized, the use of kombu became widespread throughout Japan. Traditional Okinawan cuisine relies heavily on kombu as a part of the diet; this practice began in the Edo period. In Okinawa, the consumption of kombu per household is the highest of all prefectures. In the 20th century, a way to cultivate kombu was discovered and kombu became cheap and readily available everywhere.

In 1867 the word "kombu" first appeared in an English-language publication - "A Japanese and English Dictionary," by James C. Hepburn.

Starting in the 1960s, the word "kombu" started to be used widely in the United States, and the product became widely avaialable at natural food stores and Asian-American grocery stores, due to the influence of the macrobiotic movement, and in the 1970s with the growing number of Japanese restaurants and sushi bars.

Cooking

Kombu is used extensively in Japanese cuisines as one of the three main ingredients needed to make dashi, a soup stock. Kombu is usually sold dried or in a dried shred called "''Oboro kombu''". It may also be eaten fresh as sashimi. Making kombu dashi is simple though kombu dashi powder may also be used. A strip of dried kombu in cold water is brought to a boil as the very first step of making dashi and the softened kombu is commonly eaten after cooking. It can also be sliced and used to make ''tsukudani'', a dish that is simmered in soy sauce and mirin.

It is also important in Chinese cuisine and Korean cuisine.

Kombu may be pickled with sweet and sour flavoring and are cut into small strips 5 or 6 centimeters long and 2 centimeters wide. These are often eaten as a snack with green tea.

It is often included when cooking beans, putatively to add nutrients and improve their digestibility.

Umami

Kombu naturally contains glutamic acid, an amino acid responsible for umami, a Japanese word for one of the proposed five basic tastes.

Glutamic acid is often used as a food additive and flavour enhancer in the form of monosodium glutamate , a sodium salt.

Prominent Species

* Marafuto kombu, ''Laminaria saccharina'' contains mannitol and considered sweeter
* Ma-kombu, ''Laminaria japonica''
* Mitsuishi-kombu or dashi-kombu, ''Laminaria angustata'' commonly used in the making of dashi
* Naga-kombu, ''Laminaria longissima''
* Rishiri-kombu, ''Laminaria ochotensis'' commonly used for soup stock

Kai-lan

2008-09-17T07:19:00.003-07:00

Kai-lan, also known as Chinese broccoli or Chinese kale, is a slightly bitter leaf vegetable featuring thick, flat, glossy blue-green leaves with thick stems and a small number of tiny, almost vestigial flower heads similar to those of broccoli. As the Alboglabra group of ''Brassica oleracea'', kai-lan is of the same species of plant as broccoli and kale. Its flavor is very similar to that of broccoli, though not identical, being a bit sweeter.

''Kai-lan'' is eaten widely in Chinese cuisine, and especially in Cantonese cuisine. Common preparations include kai-lan with ginger and garlic, and kai-lan served with oyster sauce. Unlike broccoli, where only the flowering parts are normally eaten, with kai-lan the leaves and stems are eaten as well, normally sliced into bits the proper size and shape to be eaten with chopsticks. It is also common in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called ''c?i làn'' or ''c?i r?''.

The name kai-lan and its American version, gai-lan, come from . It is pronounced jiè-lán in .

Gallery

Jujube

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Ziziphus zizyphus , commonly called Jujube, Red Date , or Chinese Date, is a species of ''Ziziphus'' in the buckthorn Rhamnaceae, used primarily for its fruits.

Its precise natural distribution is uncertain due to extensive cultivation, but is thought to be in southern Asia, between Syria, northern India, and southern and central China, and possibly also southeastern Europe though more likely introduced there.

It is a small deciduous tree or shrub reaching a height of 5-10 m, usually with thorny branches. The are shiny-green, ovate-acute, 2-7 cm long and 1-3 cm broad, with three conspicuous veins at the base, and a finely toothed margin. The flowers are small, 5 mm diameter, with five inconspicuous yellowish-green petals. The fruit is an edible oval drupe 1.5-3 cm long; when immature it is smooth-green, with the consistency and taste of an apple, maturing dark red to purplish-black and eventually wrinkled, looking like a small . There is a single hard stone similar to an olive stone. Over 400 cultivars have been selected.

The tree tolerates a wide range of temperatures and rainfall, though it requires hot summers and sufficient water for acceptable fruiting. Unlike most of the other species in the genus, it tolerates fairly cold winters, surviving temperatures down to about -15°C. This enables the jujube to grow in desert habitats, provided there is access to underground water through the summer. Virtually no temperature seems to be too high in summertime.

Medicinal use

The fruits are used in Chinese and Korean , where they are believed to alleviate stress. The jujube-based Australian drink 1-bil avoids making specific stress-related claims, but does suggest drinking 1-bil "when you feel yourself becoming distressed".

Ziziphin, a compound in the leaves of the jujube, suppresses the ability to perceive sweet taste in humans. The fruit, being , is also very soothing to the throat and decoctions of jujube have often been used in pharmacy to treat sore throats.

Culinary use

The freshly harvested as well as the candied dried fruits are often eaten as a snack, or with tea. They are available either red or black , the latter being to enhance their flavour . In mainland China, Korea, and Taiwan, a sweetened tea syrup containing jujube fruits is available in glass jars, and canned jujube tea or jujube tea in the form of teabags is also available. Although not widely available, jujube juice and jujube are also produced.

In China, a wine made from jujubes called ''hong zao jiu'' is also produced. Jujubes are sometimes preserved by storing in a jar filled with ''baijiu'' , which allows them to be kept fresh for a long time, especially through the winter. Such jujubes are called ''jiu zao'' .
In korea jujube is called taejuja ??? and is used in teas. It is said to be helpful in aiding the common cold.

In addition, jujubes, often stoned, are a significant ingredient in a wide variety of Chinese delicacies. In Persian cuisine, the dried drupes are known as ''annab''.

Other uses

The jujube's sweet smell is said to make teenagers fall in love, and as a result, in the Himalaya and Karakoram regions, men take a stem of sweet smelling jujube flowers with them or put it on their hats to attract women.

In traditional Chinese wedding ceremony, jujube and walnut were often placed in the newlyweds' bedroom as a sign of fertility.

In Japan, the ''natsume'' has given its name to a style of used in the Japanese tea ceremony.

In Korea, the wood is used to make the body of the ''taepyeongso'', a double-reed wind instrument.

Pests and diseases

Witch's brooms, prevalent in China and Korea, is the main disease affecting jujubes, though plantings in North America currently are not affected by any pests or diseases.

Names in other languages

*Arabic - ''ennab'' or ''sedr''
*: - ''bogori''
*: - ''bari hannu''
*: - ''boroi''
*Chinese - ''zǎo''
*Dhivehi: ''kunnaaru''
*: ''bor''
*: ''ber''
*: ''natsume''
*: ''daechu''
*: ''bor''
*Persian - ''annab''
*Sindhi - ''beir''
*Tagalog - ''manzanitas''
*Thai Language - ''Bhud-Saar''
*Turkish - ''hünnap''
* - ''elanthai''
*Telugu - ''regu pandlu''-
*Urdu - ''ennab''
*Vietnamese - ''táo tàu''

Job's Tears

2008-09-17T07:18:00.002-07:00

's Tears , Coixseed, adlay, or adlai, is a tall grain-bearing tropical plant of the family Poaceae native to East Asia and peninsular Malaysia but elsewhere cultivated in gardens as an . It has been naturalized in the southern United States and the New World tropics. Job's Tears is also commonly, but misleadingly sold as Chinese pearl barley in Asian supermarkets, despite the fact that ''C. lacryma-jobi'' are not of the same genus as barley .

Two varieties of the species are grown. ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''lacryma-jobi'' has hard shelled pseudocarps which are very hard, pearly white, oval structures used as beads for making , necklaces, and other objects. ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''ma-yuen'' is harvested as a cereal crop and is used medicinally in parts of Asia.

Etymology

Job's Tears are called many different names in different cultures:
*'''': The plants are called ''chuān gǔ'' or ''yì yǐ'' . The grains are called ''yì mǐ'' or ''yì rén'' .
*'''': ''bo bo'', ''h?t bo bo'' , ''c??m g?o'', or ''? d?''
*'''': ''juzudama'' or ''hatomugi''
*'''': ''yulmu'' in

Uses

Throughout East Asia, Job's Tears are available in dried form and cooked as a grain. The grains are generally spherical, with a groove on one end, and polished white in color, though in Japan unpolished ''yuuki hatomugi'', which is unpolished and brown in color, is also available.

In Korea, a thick drink called ''yulmu cha'' is made from powdered Job's tears. A similar drink, called ''yì mí shǔi'' , also appears in Chinese cuisine, and is made by simmering whole polished Job's Tears in water and sweetening the resulting thin, cloudy liquid with sugar. The grains are usually strained from the liquid but may also be consumed separately or together.

In both Korea and China, are also made from the grain. One such example is the called ''okroju'' , which is made from rice and Job's tears. In , an aged vinegar is made from the grain.

In southern Vietnam, a sweet, cold soup called ''s?m b? l??ng'' has Job's Tears as one of its ingredients. This dish derives from the southern Chinese ''tong sui'' called ''qīng bǔ liáng'' .

It is also used alongside other in traditional Chinese medicine.

Glutinous rice

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Glutinous rice is a type of short-grained Asian rice that is especially sticky when cooked. It is called ''glutinous'' in the sense of being glue-like or sticky and not in the sense of containing gluten; on the other hand, it is called ''sticky'' but should not be confused with the other varieties of Asian rice that become sticky to one degree or another when cooked.

Cultivation

Glutinous rice is a type of rice grown in Thailand, Japan, Vietnam, China and Laos. An estimated 85% of Lao rice production is of this type. Records of this rice go back at least 1,100 years, in this region. The improved rice varieties that swept through Asia during the Green Revolution were non-glutinous and Lao farmers rejected them in favor of their traditional sticky varieties. Over time, higher-yield strains of glutinous rice have become available from the Laotian ''National Rice Research Programme''. By 1999, more than 70% of the area along the Mekong River Valley were of these newer strains. According to legend in China, glutinous rice has been grown for at least 2,000 years. According to legend, it was used to make the mortar in the construction of the Great Wall of China, and chemical tests have confirmed that this is true for the of Xian. It is used in recipes throughout and East Asia.

Constituents

Glutinous rice does not contain dietary gluten , and thus should be safe for gluten-free diets. What distinguishes it from other types of rice is having no amylose, and high amounts of amylopectin . Amylopectin is responsible for the sticky quality of glutinous rice. The difference has been traced to a single mutation that was selected for by farmers. Both black and white glutinous rice can be cooked as grains or ground into flour and cooked as a paste.

Foods made from glutinous rice

Chinese traditions

In , glutinous rice is known as ''nuòmǐ'' .

The dish, nuòmǐ fàn , is steamed glutinous rice usually cooked with Chinese sausage, chopped Chinese mushrooms, chopped barbecue pork and optionally dried shrimp or scallop .

''Zongzi'' is a Chinese dumpling consisting of glutinous rice and sweet or savory fillings wrapped in leaves which is then boiled or steamed, commonly eaten during the Dragon Boat Festival. ''Lo mai gai'' is a parcel of glutinous rice and chicken wrapped in lotus leaves and steamed. It is served as a dim sum dish in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia. ''Ba bao fan'' or "eight treasure rice" is a dessert made from glutinous rice steamed and mixed with lard, sugar, and eight kinds of fruits or nuts.

Glutinous rice is also often ground to make glutinous rice flour. This flour is then made into ''niangao'' and sweet filled dumplings ''tangyuan'', both of which are commonly eaten at Chinese new year. It also sometimes used as a thickener and for baking.

Japanese traditions

In Japan, glutinous rice is known as mochigome . It is used to make , a traditional rice cake prepared for the Japanese New Year but also eaten year-round. See also Japanese rice.

Korean traditions

In Korea, glutinous rice is called chapssal , and its characteristic stickiness is called chalgi . Cooked rice made of glutinous rice is called chalbap and rice cakes are called chalddeok or chapssalddeok . Chalbap is used as stuffing in samgyetang.

Laotian and Thai traditions

Glutinous rice is the main rice eaten in Laos, Northern Thailand, and the northeast Thai Isan region. In , and , glutinous rice is ''kao neaw'' : "kao" means rice, and "neaw" means sticky. It is cooked by soaking for several hours and then steaming in a bamboo pot . After that, it should be turned out on a clean surface and kneaded with a wooden paddle: this results in rice balls that will stick to themselves but not to fingers. The large rice ball is kept in a small basket made of bamboo . The rice is sticky but dry, rather than wet and gummy like non-glutinous varieties. The fingers of the right hand are used to eat it by wadding the rice. Two of the most popular dishes are '''' and . ''Gai yaang'' is grilled chicken, while ''tam mak hung'' is a spicy , which does not actually contain glutinous rice, but is accompanied by glutinous rice.

The northern Thais consume glutinous rice as part of their main diet, as do the Laotians. Some of the older Thais prefer glutinous rice to other rice varieties. Lao people also use toasted glutinous rice to add a nut like flavor to many dishes. It is used as the basis for the brewing of '''' , an alcoholic beverage also known as "Thai rice wine".

Kao neaw is also eaten with desserts. ''Kao neaw moon'' is Kao neaw with coconut milk that can be served with ripened mango or durian. And ''kao neaw kluay'' is banana and kao neaw steamed together, usually with coconut milk.

Vietnamese traditions

Glutinous rice, known as ''g?o n?p'' in , is typically made into sweet desserts such as "chè" , "bánh" (when dry and formed into a cake, whether using whole glutinous rice grains or the rice flour, and "X?i" . While not all che and bánh contain glutinous rice, all ''x?i'' do. It is also eaten during full moon and common during T?t and weddings due to the fact that it is used in sweets. It is often colored with food dye, as can be seen in the picture of ''x?i g?c'', a primarily ceremonial dish made by cooking gac in glutinous rice, resulting in a bright orange dessert thanks to the natural color of the gac. Vietnamese also prepare glutinous rice cakes . Glutinous rice can also be fermented, which results in alcoholic beverages known as ''r??u n?p'' and ''c?m r??u''.

Filipino traditions

In the Philippines, glutinous rice is known as malagkit , glutinous rice flour is known as galapong. The rice grains are treated with a solution of lye and then dried, then the grains are poured into a banana leaf cone or coconut leaf wrapper and steamed. It may be mixed with sugar, coconut milk, or other grains such as millet. Glutinous rice cooked in coconut leaf or wrappers are steamed to produce "," of which there are many varieties depending on the region. Some of the common toppings are "bukayo", grated mature coconut cooked in sugar, coconut jam, and freshly grated coconut. Some regions eat suman as a snack with ripe mangoes or bananas.

A general term for sweet rice cake, "bibingka" mainly consists of glutinous rice cooked with coconut milk. Another traditional Filipino snack very similar to Japanese ''mochi'' is called "palitao."

Another popular use of glutinous rice is a porridge-like dish with cocoa powder called champorado. Sugar and milk are usually added as condiments.

Burmese traditions

Glutinous rice, called ''kao hnyin'', is very popular in Myanmar .
*''Kao hnyin baung'' is a breakfast dish with boiled peas or with a variety of fritters such as ''urad dal'' served on a banana leaf. It may actually be cooked wrapped in a banana leaf often with peas and served with a sprinkle of salted toasted sesame and often grated coconut.
*The purple variety known as ''nga cheik'' is equally popular cooked as ''ngacheik paung''.
*They may both be cooked and pounded into cakes with sesame called ''hkaw bouk'', another favourite version in the north among the and the and served grilled or fried.
*''Htamanè'' pwè takes place on the full moon of ''Dabodwè'' when htamanè is cooked in a huge wok, requiring two men each with a wooden spoon the size of an oar and a third man co-ordinating the action of folding and stirring the contents which include ''kao hnyin'', ''ngacheik'', coconut shavings, peanuts, sesame and ginger in peanut oil.
*''Si damin'' is glutinous rice cooked with turmeric and onions in peanut oil and served with toasted sesame and crisp fried onions, a popular breakfast like ''kao hnyin baung'' and ''ngacheik paung''.
*''Paung din'' is another ready-to-eat portable form cooked in a segment of bamboo, and when the bamboo is peeled off it retains a thin skin around giving off at the same time a distinctive aroma.

*''Mont let kauk'' is made from glutinous riceflour, donut-shaped and fried like ''baya gyaw'' but eaten with a dip of jaggery or palm sugar syrup.
*''Mont lone yei baw'' are glutinous rice balls with jaggery inside thrown into boiling water in a huge wok and ready to serve as soon as they resurface - a time-honoured tradition during ''Thingyan'', the Burmese New Year festival.
*''Htoe mont'', glutinous rice cake with raisins, cashews and coconut shavings, is a traditional dessert for special occasions and very much appreciated as a present from Mandalay.
*''La mont'' is another Mandalay snack filled with either sugar or sweet bean paste.
*''Nga pyaw douk'', banana in glutinous rice wrapped in banana leaf and steamed and served with grated coconut - another favourite snack sold by street hawkers like ''kao hnyin baung'' and ''mont let kauk''.

Malaysian traditions

In Malaysia, glutinous rice is known as ''pulut'', and it is usually mixed with ''santan'', meaning coconut milk in Malay, along with a bit of salt to add some taste. It is widely used during the ''Raya'' festive seasons as traditional food, such as

* Palas - cooked ''pulut'' wrapped in triangular shaped crafts made from local leaves and left to be boiled for 3 - 4 hours to result nice shaped compression and to bring out the aroma or taste from the wrapped leaves.
* Lemang - wrapped in banana leaves and inside a bamboo, and left to be barbecued/grilled on an open fire, to make the taste and texture tender and unique
* Ketupat - square shaped crafts made from the same local leaves as palas, but it is usually filled with regular rice grains instead of ''pulut'', but it depends on the maker.
* Lopes - glutinous rice wrapped in individual triangles using banana leaves and left to boil for a few hours. The rice pieces are then tossed with grated coconut all over and served with palm sugar syrup.

''Pulut'' will also be used in certain famous ''kuih'', traditional local desserts.

Beverages made from Glutinous rice

*Choujiu
*Sato
*Home brew sato kits

Other uses

In Malaysia Glutinous rice also used to make a cracker, or keropok in Malay, called inang-inang.

Ginseng

2008-09-17T07:17:00.001-07:00

Ginseng refers to species within Panax, a genus of 11 species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, in the family Araliaceae. They grow in the Northern Hemisphere in eastern Asia , typically in cooler climates; ''Panax vietnamensis'', discovered in Vietnam, is the southernmost ginseng found. This article focuses on the Series Panax ginsengs, which are the adaptogenic herbs, principally ''Panax ginseng'' and ''''. Ginseng is characterized by the presence of ginsenosides.

Siberian ginseng is not a true ginseng at all. It is another adaptogen, but a different plant that was renamed as "Siberian ginseng" as a marketing ploy; instead of a fleshy root, it has a woody root; instead of ginsenosides, eleutherosides are present, .

Etymology

The English word ginseng derives from the term ''rénshēn'' , literally "man root" . The English pronunciation derives from a southern Chinese reading, similar to Cantonese ''jên shên'' .

The botanical/genus name ''Panax'' means "all-heal" in Greek, sharing the same origin as "panacea," and was applied to this genus because Linnaeus was aware of its wide use in Chinese medicine as a muscle relaxant.

Traditional uses

Both American and Panax ginseng roots are taken orally as adaptogens, aphrodisiacs, nourishing stimulants, and in the treatment of type II diabetes, including sexual dysfunction in men. The root is most often available in dried form, either whole or sliced. Ginseng leaf, although not as highly prized, is sometimes also used; as with the root it is most often available in dried form.

This ingredient may also be found in some popular Energy Drinks: usually the "tea" varieties or Functional Foods. Usually ginseng is in subclinical doses and it does not have measurable medicinal effects. It can be found in cosmetic preparations as well, with similar lack of effect.

Ginseng root can be double steamed with chicken meat as a soup.

Modern science and ginseng

It has been difficult to verify the medicinal benefits of ginseng using science, as there are contradictory results from different studies, possibly due to the wide variety and quality of ginseng used in studies. High-quality studies of the effects of ginseng are rare.

Ginseng is promoted as an adaptogen , one which can to a certain extent be supported with reference to its anticarcinogenic and antioxidant properties, although animal experiments to determine whether longevity and health were increased in the presence of stress gave negative results.

A comparative, and double-blind study at the indicates it may be "a promising dietary supplement" when assessed for an increase in quality of life . It should be noted, however, that exclusion rates in this study were high. 124 participants were excluded from this study "due to lack of compliance with the treatment" whereas 164 participants in the control group and 338 participants in the ginseng group completed the study.

''P. ginseng'' appear to inhibit some characteristics associated with cancer in animal models; nevertheless, this effect is unclear in humans.

There are references in literature, including authoritative compendiums, that show interactions with ginseng. Herbalist Jonathan Treasure of the United States National Institute of Mental Health traces the growth of misinformation on an alleged adverse herb-drug interaction between the monoamine oxidase inhibitor phenelzine and Asian ginseng . This originally was mentioned in a 1985 editorial by Shader and Greenblatt in the Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. Shader and Greenblatt devoted a couple of lines to the case of 64 year-old woman who took an undisclosed dose for an undisclosed time of a dietary supplement product called “Natrol High” while concurrently taking phenelzine 60 mg qd. She experienced symptoms of “insomnia, headache, and tremulousness”. Treasure contacted Natrol by email and discovered within ten minutes that there was no ''P. ginseng'' in the formula, but instead ''Eleutherococcus'' which was then called by the popular name "Siberian ginseng" and it was given in a subclinical dosage mixed with a variety of other herbs. The purported interaction effects are well-known side effects of phenelzine alone, which had been given in a high dosage and are not at all suggestive of ''Eleutherococcus''. However this misinformed article with a misidentified herb has been picked up in literature searches, megastudies and is now documented by conventional medical authorities such as Stockley’s, and is repeated in several botanical monographs e.g. World Health Organization .

Ginseng and reproductive activity

A 2002 study by the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine found that in laboratory animals, both Asian and American forms of ginseng enhance libido and copulatory performance. These effects of ginseng may not be due to changes in hormone secretion, but to direct effects of ginseng, or its ginsenoside components, on the central nervous system and gonadal tissues. In males, ginsenosides can facilitate penile erection. This is consistent with traditional Chinese medicine and medicinal uses of ginseng.

Ginseng is known to contain phytoestrogens.

Side effects

One of ''P. ginseng'''s most common side-effects is the . Other side-effects can include nausea, diarrhea, , headaches, epistaxis, high blood pressure, low blood pressure, and mastalgia.

Overdose

The common adaptogen ginsengs are generally considered to be relatively safe even in large amounts.

''P. ginseng'' is not recommended within Chinese Medicine to be administered along with anti-infective herbs unless a person is quite debilitated, because of the fear that the pathogen will be tonified. Herbalists in China believed this and according to Xu Dachun in his brief essay on ginseng :
"if one administers Ginseng of a purely supplementing nature, then one will merely supplement the evil influences and help them settle down. In minor cases, the evil influences will, as a result of such mistaken therapy, never leave the body again. In serious cases, death is inevitable."

Common classification

'''' American ginseng

:Ginseng that is produced in the United States and Canada is particularly prized in societies, and many ginseng packages are prominently colored red, white, and blue.
:According to Traditional Chinese Medicine, American Ginseng promotes Yin energy, cleans excess Yang in the body, calms the body. The reason it has been claimed that American ginseng promotes Yin while East Asian ginseng promotes Yang is that, according to traditional Chinese medicine, things living in cold places or northern side of mountains or southern side of rivers are strong in Yang and vice versa, so that the two are balanced. Chinese/Korean ginseng grows in northeast China and Korea, the coldest area known to many Koreans in traditional times. Thus, ginseng from there is supposed to be very ''Yang''. Originally, American ginseng was imported into China via subtropical Guangzhou, the seaport next to Hong Kong, so Chinese doctors believed that American ginseng must be good for ''Yin'', because it came from a hot area. However they did not know that American ginseng can only grow in temperate regions. Nonetheless the root is legitimately classified as more ''Yin'' because it generates fluids.

:The two main components of ginseng are in different proportions in the Asian and American varieties, and may well be the cause of the excitatory versus tonic natures.

:The ginseng is sliced and a few slices are simmered in hot water to make a decoction.
:Most North American ginseng is produced in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and British Columbia and the American state of Wisconsin, according to . ''P. quinquefolius'' is now also grown in northern China.
:A , double-blind study shows that an extract of American ginseng reduces influenza cases in the elderly when compared to placebo.

A study shows that Red ginseng reduces the relapse of gastric cancer versus control.

A study of ginseng's effects on rats shows that while both ''White ginseng'' and ''Red ginseng'' reduce the incidence of cancer, the effects appear to be greater with ''Red ginseng''.

Falcarinol, a seventeen-carbon diyne fatty alcohol was isolated from carrot and red ginseng, shown to have potent anticancer properties on primary mammary epithelial cells.
Other acetylenic fatty alcohols in ginseng have antibiotic properties.

Wild ginseng

Wild ginseng is ginseng that has not been planted and cultivated domestically, rather it is that which grows naturally and is harvested from wherever it is found to be growing. It is considered to be superior to field farmed ginseng by various authorities, and it has been shown to contain higher levels of ginsenoside. Wild ginseng is relatively rare and even increasingly endangered, due in large part to high demand for the product in recent years, which has led to the wild plants being sought out and harvested faster than new ones can grow . Wild ginseng can be either Asian or American and can be processed to be red ginseng.

There are woods grown American ginseng programs in Maine, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina and West Virginia. and United Plant Savers has been encouraging the woods planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from any remaining wild ginseng, and they offer both advice and sources of rootlets. Woods grown plants have comparable value to wild grown ginseng of similar age.

Ginseng alternatives

These mostly adaptogenic plants are sometimes referred to as ginsengs, but they are either from a different family or genus. Only Jiaogulan actually contains compounds closely related to ginsenosides, although ginsenosides alone do not determine the effectiveness of ginseng. Since each of these plants have different uses, one should research their properties before using. Descriptions and differentiation can be found in David Winston and Steven Maimes book ''Adaptogens''

* ''Gynostemma pentaphyllum''
* ''Eleutherococcus senticosus''
* ''Pseudostellaria heterophylla''
* ''Withania somnifera''
* ''Pfaffia paniculata''
* ''Lepidium meyenii''
* ''Oplopanax horridus''

Other plants which are referred to as ginsengs may not be adaptogens :

* ''Angelica sinensis''
* ''Panax notoginseng''

Geoduck

2008-09-17T07:16:00.002-07:00

The geoduck , ''Panopea abrupta'', is a species of large clam, a bivalve mollusk. The shell of this clam is large, about 15 to over 20 cm in length , but the long siphons make the clam itself much longer; the "neck" or siphons alone can be one meter in length.

Etymology

The unusual name of the clam is derived from a Lushootseed word meaning "dig deep", and its phonemically counterintuitive spelling is likely the result of poor . Alternate spellings include ''gweduc'', ''gweduck'' and ''goiduck''. It is sometimes known as the king clam, or when translated literally from the Chinese characters 象拔蚌, the elephant trunk clam.

Biology

Native to the northwest coast of the United States and Canada ,the geoduck is the largest burrowing clam in the world, weighing in at an average of one to three pounds at maturity, but specimens weighing over 15 pounds and as much as 2 meters in length are not unheard of.

Geoducks are one of the in the . They have a life expectancy of about 146 years, with the oldest recorded at over 160 years. Scientists speculate that the geoduck's longevity is the result of low wear and tear. A geoduck sucks plankton down through its long siphon, filters them for food and ejects its refuse out through a separate hole in the siphon. Adult geoducks have few natural predators, which may also contribute to their longevity. In Alaska, sea otters and dogfish have proved capable of dislodging geoducks; starfish also attack and feed on the exposed geoduck siphon.

Geoducks are broadcast spawners. A female geoduck produces about 5 eggs in her century-long lifespan—in comparison, a produces about 500 viable ova during the course of her life.

Industry and impact

The world's first geoduck fishery was created in 1970, but demand for the semi-forgotten clam was low due to its texture. Today, they sell in Asia for up to US$30/lb . Geoduck, like shark fin soup and black bear gall bladders, is highly regarded for its claimed physiological effect. In the case of geoducks it is the "enhancement of male performance" . Its large, meaty siphon is also prized by some for its flavor and crunchy texture. It is extremely popular in China, where it is considered a delicacy. Geoduck is mostly eaten cooked in a fondue-style Chinese hot pot or raw sashimi style, dipped in soy sauce and wasabi. In Korean cuisine, geoducks are eaten in raw with spicy chili sauce, sautéed, or in soups and stews. On , geoduck is called ''mirugai'' or ''mirukuigai''. It also has a texture similar to an Ark Shell .

The geoduck's high market value has created an $80 million U.S. industry, with harvesting occurring in both Washington state and the province of British Columbia. It is one of the most closely regulated fisheries in both countries; in Washington, Department of Natural Resources staff are on the water continually monitoring harvests in order to assure revenues are received, and the same is true in Canada where the Underwater Harvesters' Association manages the Canadian Fishery in conjunction with Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans. The Washington Department of Health tests water and flesh in order to assure clams are not filtering and holding pollutants, an ongoing problem. As of the 2007 season, advances in the testing system for contaminated clams have allowed geoduck harvesters to deliver live clams more consistently. The new testing system determines the viability of clams from tested beds before the harvesters fish the area. Previous methods tested clams after harvest. This advancement has meant that 90 percent of clams were delivered live to market in 2007. In 2001 only 10 percent were live. Because geoduck have a much higher market value live - an additional $2-3 per pound - , this development has helped to stimulate the burgeoning industry.

Regulation of environmental impacts are just now beginning to evolve. Demand has also led to a rapidly developing aquaculture industry. Geoduck aquaculture on private tidelands in Puget Sound, particularly in South Puget Sound, has been steadily growing over the last ten years, averaging about 10 new acres of cultivation per year. Currently less than 0.001% of Puget Sound is dedicated to geoduck farming. Geoduck farms use "predator exclusion devices" in which to plant the seed geoducks. These devices are PVC pipes -- 10 to long, four to six inches in diameter -- pushed into the tideland sediment. There are approximately 20,000 to 43,500 of these PVC pipes planted per acre on tidelands. These nursery tubes typically stay in the beach for the first year or two of a crop cycle.

While the Environmental Defense Fund has done extensive studies of aquaculture and has found that oysters and mussels are marginally beneficial to the marine environment, Rebecca Goldburg has noted she did not study Geoducks.

The water must be certifiably clean in order to plant geoducks commercially. This is a requirement of the and of the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Council.

While some communities in Puget Sound have installed state of the art septic systems to comply with efforts by environmental groups and state officials to clean up Puget Sound, more than 3000 acres of shellfish beds have been lost to farming between 1992 and 2004 due to fecal contamination from human activities and development. Substantial portions of the state's shorelines are already so developed or degraded that they are unsuitable for harvesting, and other areas continue to follow suit. Encouraging the firm enforcement of regulations is a critical component in helping assure the shellfish industry's economic success, and with it jobs and tax revenues.

Geoduck farming grow-out and harvest practices are highly controversial and can be seen through photo documentation in a . These practices have created serious conflicts with shoreline property owners; concerns from Non Governmental Organization ; and others simply interested in the health of Puget Sound. The shoreline development groups have expressed concerns including lack of regulation, aesthetics, effects on native geoduck populations, impacts on wildlife, farm debris, intensive farming/harvest techniques, agricultural densities of geoducks, carrying capacity of low flushing inlets, nearshore habitat destruction, overenrichment of sediments from intensive shellfish biodeposits and the permanent conversion of natural ecosytems to intensive commercial agricultural use on the tidelands of Puget Sound. Shoreline developers are particularly concerned because they see shellfish farming as an impediment to continued bulkheading, upland deforestation and septic tank installation. The main objectives of the newly created include habitat preservation, habitat restoration, preservation of biodiversity and recovery of imperiled species .

The stakeholder group, including industry, agency and citizen representatives has convened to discuss regulation of this industry. This is mandated by the 2007 . Counties such as Pierce County have also begun to develop regulations covering tideland impacts from geoduck farming, something Taylor Shellfish has filed a suit against.

Although some marine shoreline owners take issue with the visual impacts, the tubes are actually only visible 2-3% of daylight hours over a 6-year crop cycle. The reason for the low visibility is because geoduck are farmed in the lower elevations of the beach and are covered by water most of the time.

However, since the lowest tides in the summer are during mid-day, the visual and recreational impact of the tubes is greatest at the very time when the people of Puget Sound are likely to be using the beach. During summer, a citzen group shows that the average percentage of time during daylight hours that the farms are visible is 19% per day and the number of days from Memorial Day weekend to Labor Day that farms are visible some portion of the day is 76%. This is calculated for geoducks planted to a +2 tidal level in Thurston County, Washington, one of the counties of South Puget Sound where the geoduck farms are clustered without any environmental siting criteria, public comment or environmental review. When calculated for a +3 tidal elevation , the amount of visibility rises to an average per day of 23% of daylight hours and 87% of the days of the summer.

Impacts on tideland include placing as many as 44,000 PVC pipes per acre on privately held tidelands; removal of this "artificial reef" one to three years later; then harvest after 5 to 6 years. While these practices may have short term impacts to the tidelands, these impacts are not nearly as great as the documented impacts from upland residential development including bulkheading of the shoreline , deforestation of the upland and placing of septic systems in the shoreline habitat . Fortunately, these upland impacts are readily dealt with through enforcement of existing regulations. Unfortunately, there are no meaningful regulations controlling geoduck farming and whatever the tideland impacts may be, whether short term or long term.

A January 2008 Washington Sea Grant paper, commissioned by the state of Washington to determine what studies existed on Geoduck aquaculture, found virtually no peer-reviewed research existed. Some take this lack of research as proof there is no known cumulative or substative impacts from geoduck farming. Fortunately, studies have been funded to determine what the short and long term environmental impacts are; what the short and long term genetic impacts to the wild populations are; and, what the effects of geoduck aquaculture on soft-sediment tideflat and eelgrass meadow habitats is. When they are complete a clear picture of what impacts have occurred will be known.

Some claim farm densities of geoducks are similar to unharvested natural beds in the wild, pointing to two or three of the highest samples of hundreds taken. Not considered is that subtidal population densities are not comparable to intertidal densities. Some speculate the intertidal natural densities are lower due to 40 years of harvest without replnating , perhaps resulting in most of the natural beds having been depleted. However, without ever knowing the original population densities, this is only speculation. What is factual is that the Department of Fish and Wildlife's Commercial Geoduck Tract typically finds wild densities far below the farmed densities of ~2 geoducks per square foot, with typical average densities of only .3/square foot or less.

Some also speculate that the effects on native geoduck populations from geoduck farming is minimal to non-existent.. Washington Sea Grant has noted no research on this exists. They have commissioned a study to look at this specific risk to the wild population.

Each year new hatchery brood stock is taken from the wild stock. Farmed animals are not used as brood stock so genetically, farmed geoduck are the same as wild stocks. Moreover, wild geoduck occupy the intertidal zone down to below sea level. DNR and the tribes co-manage the and only harvest geoduck between the -18 to -70 foot depths. The annual leased harvest of the wild geoduck population by the is about 4 million pounds a year.

Wildlife interactions are a concern and geoduck growers are adapting growing techniques to minimize these effects. A examining the impacts of geoduck farming was completed and no long term effects on threatened or endangered species were identified. This 2004 draft document was commissioned by three of the largest commercial shellfish companies in the Puget Sound region. Why it still remains a draft document is unknown.

Farm debris includes displaced net tops, rubber bands, and PVC tubes. The net tops used on the nursery pipes can come off and float away onto other beaches as debris and the rubber bands also can become debris in Puget Sound. To offset these environmental impacts most geoduck farmers have embraced environmental codes of practice including regular maintenance and debris clean-up of their own farms. In addition, the industry now does two annual beach cleanups to collect marine debris from all beaches in areas where they farm. Although as much as 20% of the debris collected in each cleanup has been aquaculture related, less than 5% of the collected to date has been related to geoduck farming. Unfortunately, because of the currents in Puget Sound, nets and tubing can be found far from any poorly maintained geoduck operations. This lack of control over loose gear remains a significant enough problem that bonding requirements are being considered as part of regulations being developed.

Harvesting takes place every 4-6 years. Water pressure hoses using up to 50 gallons of water per minute are used to extract the geoducks buried under two to three feet of sediment depth. There are no environmental impact studies related to intertidal harvest of geoduck as of August 2006, although the sub-tidal environmental impact studies done for the fisheries in BC and WA have found no detrimental effects in harvesting the clams. Geoduck farming is only conducted in clean, uncontaminated sediments so concern is limited to short term increases in turbidity and short term effect on benthic organisms. The Department of Natural Resources of Washington State conducted the environmental impact study. DNR is itself in the business of leasing subtidal lands for commercial geoduck harvest and starting this year, intertidal lands for commercial geoduck farming.

Geoducks in culture

* The geoduck is the official mascot of The Evergreen State College, located at the southernmost tip of Puget Sound in , Washington. The 's Latin motto, ''Omnia Extares'' is at least partially intended as a reference to the creature's appearance.
* [: A by Joey Skaggs who played Dr. Richard J. Long who sought to save geoduck mollusks from extinction because they had become a popular aphrodisiac among the Japanese.

* Writer/director has stated that the geoduck was an inspiration for the slug-like alien parasites in his 2006 horror/comedy ''''.

* A geoduck farm was featured on the television show Dirty Jobs on the Discovery Channel, with Mike Rowe on July 18, 2006.

* A documentary about geoducks, ''3 FEET UNDER: Digging Deep for the Geoduck Clam'', won the best documentary award at the .

* Geoduck was used as part of an exotic protein challenge on the first episode of Top Chef .

* Geoduck was featured on Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations on the Travel channel in the episode titled 'Pacific Northwest'. In that episode Anthony Bourdain, the host, helps catch geoducks and is then treated to an impromptu meal of geoduck on the beach.

* Author Betty MacDonald describes digging out Geoduck on the beach near her home on Vashon island in her book, Onions in the Stew and includes her recipe for cooking them.

Gas bladder

2008-09-17T07:16:00.001-07:00

The gas bladder is an internal that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth, ascend, or descend without having to waste energy in swimming.

The gas bladder is a gas-filled sac located in the portion of the fish. It has flexible walls that contract or expand according to the ambient pressure. The walls of the bladder contain very few blood vessels and are lined with guanine crystals, which make them impermeable to gases. In gas bladders, a connection is retained between the gas bladder and the gut, allowing the fish to fill up the gas bladder by "gulping" air and filling the gas bladder through the pneumatic duct. In more derived varieties of fish, the bladder has a gas gland that can introduce gases to the bladder to increase its volume and thus increase buoyancy. To reduce buoyancy, gases are released from the bladder into the blood stream and then expelled into the water via the gills.
In order to introduce gas into the bladder, the gas gland excretes lactic acid; the resulting acidity causes the hemoglobin of the blood to lose its oxygen, which then into the bladder while flowing through a complex structure known as the ''rete mirabile''. Elsewhere, at a similar structure known as the ''oval window'', the bladder is in contact with blood and the oxygen can diffuse back.

Physoclist gas bladders have one important disadvantage: they prohibit fast rising, as the bladder would burst. Physostomes can "burp" out gas, though this complicates the process of re-submergence.
Gas bladders are only found in ray-finned fish, but a few of these fish that do not need to change water depth have lost them. Many fish, including sharks, can control their depth only by swimming ; others store fats or oils for the purpose.

In some fish, mainly freshwater species, the gas bladder is connected to the of the inner ear by the Weberian apparatus, which provides a precise sense of water pressure , and may also improve hearing.

The combination of gases in the bladder varies; in shallow water fish, the ratios closely approximate that of the , while deep sea fish tend to have higher percentages of oxygen. For instance, the eel ''Synaphobranchus'' has been observed to have 75.1% oxygen, 20.5% nitrogen, 3.1% carbon dioxide, and 0.4% argon in its gas bladder.

Gas bladders are evolutionarily closely related to lungs. It is believed that the first lungs, simple sacs that allowed the organism to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions, evolved into the lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and into the gas bladders of today's fish. In embryonal development, both lung and gas bladder originate as an outpocketing from the gut; in the case of gas bladders, this connection to the gut continues to exist as the pneumatic duct in more "primitive" teleosts, and is lost in the more derived orders. There are no animals which have both lungs and a gas bladder.

Human uses

In some Asian cultures, fish maw of certain large sea fishes is considered a food delicacy . It is usually served braised or in stews. Fish maws are also used in the food industry as a source of collagen. Fish maw can also be made into a strong, water-resistant glue.

Gas bladders in other animals

The Portuguese Man o' War has a special gas bladder that allows its top to float along the surface while its tentacles trail below the water. This organ is unrelated to the one in fish.

Five-spice powder

2008-09-17T07:14:00.000-07:00

Five-spice powder is a seasoning in Chinese cuisine. It incorporates the five basic flavors of Chinese cooking — sweet, sour, , , and salty.
One common recipe includes Tung Hing , powdered cassia buds, powdered star anise and anise seed, ginger root, and ground cloves.
Another recipe for the powder consists of ''huajiao'' , ''bajiao'' , ''rougui'' , cloves, and fennel seeds. It is used in most recipes for roasted duck, as well as beef stew. It is also used as a marinade for Vietnamese broiled chicken. The five-spice powder mixture has followed the Chinese diaspora and has been incorporated into other national cuisines throughout Asia.

The formulae are based on the Chinese philosophy of balancing the in food.

Although this spice is used in restaurant cooking, many Chinese households do not use it in day-to-day cooking. In , some restaurants have it on the table.

A versatile seasoned salt can be easily made by stir-frying common with Five-spice powder under low heat in a dry pan until the spice and salt are well mixed.

Chinese ingredients

Black bean paste

Five Chinese cereals

Facing heaven pepper

Euryale ferox

Use

Edamame

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Dried shrimp

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In East Asia

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Douchi

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Black bean paste

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Conpoy

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Pekinensis

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Chinese Chestnut

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Chenpi

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Myth

=Bibliography

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Wolfberry

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China

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Tibetan goji berry

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